1965 war between India and Pakistan
The
Indo-Pakistani war of 1965
, also known as the
second India?Pakistan war
, was an armed conflict between
Pakistan
and
India
that took place from August 1965 to September 1965. The conflict began following Pakistan's
Operation Gibraltar
,
[11]
which was designed to infiltrate forces into
Jammu and Kashmir
to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule.
[12]
The seventeen-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II.
Hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared through
UNSC Resolution 211
following a diplomatic intervention by the
Soviet Union
and the
United States
, and the subsequent issuance of the
Tashkent Declaration
.
[15]
Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in
Kashmir
and along the
border
between India and Pakistan. This war saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir since the
Partition of India
in 1947, a number that was overshadowed only during the
2001?2002 military standoff
between India and Pakistan. Most of the battles were fought by opposing
infantry
and
armored
units, with substantial backing from air forces, and naval operations.
India had the
upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared
.
[16]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
Although the two countries fought to a standoff, the conflict is seen as a strategic and political defeat for Pakistan,
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
as it had not succeeded in fomenting insurrection in Kashmir.
However, in terms of
aerial warfare
, the
PAF
managed an upper hand over the combat zones despite being numerically inferior.
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
India failed to achieve its objective of military deterrence.
[34]
[35]
Internationally, the war was viewed in the context of the greater
Cold War
, and resulted in a significant geopolitical shift in the subcontinent.
[36]
Before the war, the United States and the United Kingdom had been major material allies of both India and Pakistan, as their primary suppliers of military hardware and foreign developmental aid. During and after the conflict, both India and Pakistan felt betrayed by the perceived lack of support by the western powers for their respective positions; those feelings of betrayal were increased with the imposition of an American and British embargo on military aid to the opposing sides.
[36]
As a consequence, India and Pakistan openly developed closer relationships with the Soviet Union and China, respectively.
The perceived negative stance of the western powers during the conflict, and during the 1971 war, has continued to affect relations between the West and the subcontinent. Despite improved relations with the U.S. and Britain since the end of the Cold War, the conflict generated a deep distrust of both countries within the subcontinent which to an extent lingers until now.
[40]
Background
Since the
partition of British India
in August 1947, Pakistan and India remained in contention over several issues. Although the
Kashmir conflict
was the predominant issue dividing the nations, other border disputes existed, most notably over the
Rann of Kutch
, a barren region in the Indian state of
Gujarat
. The issue first arose in 1956, which ended with India regaining control over the disputed area.
[41]
In the 1960s Pakistan received 700 million dollars of
military aid
from the
United States
, by signing a defense agreement in 1954, which significantly modernized Pakistan's military equipment.
[42]
[43]
[44]
After the defeat in 1962
Sino-Indian War
, the
Indian military
was undergoing massive changes both in personnel and equipment. During this period, despite being numerically smaller than the Indian Military, Pakistan's armed forces had a qualitative edge in air power and armor over India, which Pakistan sought to utilize before India completed its defense build-up.
[44]
[45]
Pakistani soldiers began patrolling in territory controlled by India in January 1965, which was followed by attacks by both countries on each other's posts on 8 April 1965.
[41]
[46]
Initially involving border police from both nations, the disputed area soon witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries' armed forces. Pakistan launched
Operation Desert Hawk
and captured a few Indian posts near the Kanjarkot fort border area.
[47]
In June 1965,
British Prime Minister
Harold Wilson
successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities. Both countries signed an agreement to settle the disputed border through international arbitration by the
International Court of Justice
on 30 June 1965.
[48]
[49]
A tribunal was set to resolve the dispute, the verdict which came later in 1968, saw Pakistan awarded 780 square kilometres (301 square miles) of the Rann of Kutch, as against its original claim of 9,100 km
2
(3,500 sq mi).
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
Pakistan's purpose of this operation was to assess the response of the Indian government and military
[54]
and to draw Indian armor southward to Kutch, away from the
Punjab
and
Kashmir
region.
[55]
After its success in the Rann of Kutch, Pakistan, under the leadership of
Muhammad Ayub Khan
, believed the
Indian Army
would be unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of
Kashmir
as the Indian military had suffered a loss to China in 1962
[
citation needed
]
in the
Sino-Indian War
. Pakistan believed that the population of
Kashmir
was generally discontented with Indian rule, and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating
saboteurs
.
War
Operation Gibraltar
On 5 August 1965, Pakistani soldiers
crossed
the
Line of Control
dressed as Kashmiri locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. These infiltrators carried out intelligence collection with the help of locals in cities like
Gulmarg
and
Rajouri
.
Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, captured several Pakistani soldiers who revealed that Pakistan was attempting to ignite the resistance movement employing a covert infiltration, code-named
Operation Gibraltar
.
[57]
[
full citation needed
]
The operation was eventually unsuccessful.
[58]
On 6 and 7 August, Indian forces engaged in skirmishes with several columns of Pakistani soldiers, who tried to cut communication lines and mix with the locals during celebrations.
Indian Army crossed the cease fire line on 15 August and captured several previously infiltrated peaks overlooking the
Srinagar ? Leh Highway
.
[41]
[59]
Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success, capturing three important mountain positions after a prolonged artillery barrage. By the end of August, however, both sides had relative progress; Pakistan had made progress in areas such as
Tithwal
,
Uri
and
Poonch
.
Haji Pir passs
Wishing to stop the influx of Pakistani forces into the
Uri-Poonch
bulge, COAS
Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri
commanded the
XV Corps
under
Lt Gen K. S. Katoch
to advance and take over
Haji Pir pass
. Under the watch of
Lt Gen Harbaksh Singh
, led by
Brig. ZC Bakshi
of the 68 Infantry Brigade, Indian forces
captured the Haji Pir pass
, 8 km into
Pakistan administered Kashmir
by 28 August.
[60]
Chhamb offensive
On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched a counterattack, called
Operation Grand Slam
, with the objective to capture the vital town of
Akhnoor
in
Jammu
, which would sever communications and cut off supply routes to Indian troops. Ayub Khan calculated that "Hindu morale would not stand more than a couple of hard blows at the right time and place"
[61]
[62]
[63]
although by this time
Operation Gibraltar
had failed and India had
captured the Haji Pir Pass
.
[61]
Commander of the Western army, Lt Gen Harbaksh Singh had suggested after the capture of Haji Pir, that Pakistani forces would carry out a major offensive in the
Chumb
plain to advance and capture a strategically important location in
Akhnoor
to cut Indian supply lines but after a meeting with CAOS Chaudhari, the area was not reinforced. Instead, XV Corps under Lt Gen Katoch was tasked with securing Nowshera.
At 03:30 on 1 September 1965, the entire
Chumb
area came under massive artillery bombardment as Pakistan had commenced the
Operation Grand Slam
. India's Army Headquarters was taken surprised.
Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior tanks, Pakistan made gains against Indian forces under the command of
Maj Gen A. H. Malik
, who were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses. Maj Gen Mailk was then replaced by
Maj Gen Yahya Khan
by
C-in-C Gen Muhammad Musa
who authorized Maj Gen Khan to advance deeper into Indian Territory.
India responded by calling in its
air force
to blunt the Pakistani attack. The next day, Pakistan retaliated with its
air force
and attacked Indian forces and air bases in both
Kashmir
and
Punjab
. India then decided to open up the theatre of attack into Pakistani Punjab and forced the Pakistani army to relocate troops engaged in the Chumb operation to defend Punjab. Operation Grand Slam therefore failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture
Akhnoor
; it became one of the turning points in the war, when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south. In the valley, another area of strategic importance was
Kargil
. Kargil town was in Indian hands, but Pakistan occupied high ground overlooking Kargil and Srinagar-Leh road. However, after the launch of a massive anti-infiltration operation by the Indian army, the Pakistani infiltrators were forced out of that area in the month of August.
Icchogil Canal
India crossed the
International Border
on the Western front on 6 September.
[68]
President Ayub Khan, on the same day, declared a state of emergency through radio broadcast proclaiming that Pakistan was in a state of war with India.
On 6 September, the
15th Infantry Division
of the Indian Army, under
World War II
veteran Major General Niranjan Prasad, battled a massive counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the
Icchogil Canal
(BRB Canal), which was an
in fact
border of India and Pakistan. The General's entourage itself was ambushed, and he was forced to flee his vehicle.
Battle of Burki
The
7th Infantry Division
under the command of Maj Gen Har Kishan Sibal attempted an offensive on canal on 6 September. The forces advanced through Khalra-Barki- Lahore road and reached Barki by 7 September. The forces engaged heavily at the
Battle of Burki
. The battle involved the air forces, armored, infantry divisions and artillery brigades from both sides. The town fell by 11 September. A great amount of Pakistani ammunition was captured from Barki which helped Indian forces after the battle.
The Indian artillery stood within the range of
Lahore International Airport
. As a result, the United States requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in
Lahore
.
Battle of Dograi
The thrust against Lahore consisted of the 1st Infantry Division supported by the three tank regiments of the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade; they quickly advanced across the border, reaching the Ichhogil (BRB) Canal by 6 September. The Pakistani Army held the bridges over the canal or blew up those it could not hold, effectively stalling any further advance by the Indians on Lahore.
3rd Jat battalion
was the first Indian unit to cross the Icchogil canal and capture it alongside Dograi.
[73]
The same day, a counteroffensive consisting of an armored division and infantry division supported by
Pakistan Air Force
Sabres
forced the Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jats suffered minimal casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by ammunition and store vehicles, the higher commanders had no information of 3 Jats' capture of Dograi and misleading information led to the command to withdraw from Batapore and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move brought extreme disappointment
[74]
to Lt-Col
Desmond Hayde
, CO of the 3 Jats. Dograi was eventually recaptured by the three Jats on 21 September, for the second time but after a much harder battle due to Pakistani reinforcements, in the
Battle of Dograi
.
[75]
On 8 September 1965, a company of five Maratha Light Infantry was sent to reinforce a Rajasthan Armed Constabulary (RAC) post at Munabao ? a strategic hamlet about 250 kilometers from Jodhpur. Their brief was simple. To hold the post and to keep Pakistan's infantry battalions from overrunning the post at bay. But at Maratha Hill (in Munabao) ? as the post has now been christened ? the Indian company could barely manage to thwart the intense attack for 24 hours. A company of three Guards with 954 heavy mortar battery ordered to reinforce the RAC post at Munabao could never reach. The Pakistani Air Force had strafed the entire area, and also hit a railway train coming from Barmer with reinforcements near Gadra road railway station. On 10 September, Munabao fell into Pakistani hands, and efforts to capture the strategic point did not succeed.
[76]
Sialkot offensive
Battle of Phillora
On the days following 9 September, India's
1st Armoured Division
under Major General
Rajinder Singh
advanced towards
Sialkot
with the intention to capture the sector and was met with Pakistan's
6th Armoured Division
under
Maj Gen Abrar Hussain
. They first engaged in the town of Phillora. Failure on the Pakistani side to cause damage to the Indian advance forced the 6th Armoured Division to retreat to the town of Chawinda on 11 September and the
Battle of Phillora
was an Indian success.
[77]
Pakistan lost 66 tanks in the battle while India only lost 6.
[78]
[79]
[80]
Battle of Chawinda
The Pakistani
I Corps
under the command of
Lt Gen Bakhtiar Rana
and the 6th Armoured under Maj Gen Hussain engaged with the Indian
I Corps
commanded by the newly appointed Lieutenant General
Patrick Dunn
and the 1st Armoured under Rajinder Singh from 14 to 19 September in the biggest tank battle since the
Battle of Kursk
during the
World War II
. It also involved the lowest ever air battle to be fought as the Pakistani
Sabre
engaged with the Indian
Gnats
. The Indian offensive was repulsed and stopped successfully.
Pakistan claimed that Indians lost 120 tanks at Chawinda.
[83]
compared to 44 of its own
[84]
But later, Indian official sources confirmed India lost only 29 tanks at
Chawinda
.
[85]
[86]
Towards the end of the Sialkot offensive, the Pakistani Armoured arsenal was left heavily damaged with more than 200 tanks destroyed and 36 captured which was very heavy compared to the Indian damages.
Battle of Asal Uttar
On 8 September, the Pakistani 1st Armoured Division and 11 Infantry Division under the command of Maj Gen Nasir Khan pushed an offensive towards
Khem Karan
, with the intent to capture
Amritsar
(a major city in
Punjab, India
) and the bridge on
River Beas
to
Jalandhar
.
India then launched a counter-offensive. After India breached the Madhupur canal on 11 September, the Khem Karan counter-offensive was halted, affecting Pakistan's strategy substantially.
[61]
The Pakistani forces engaged with an outnumbered Indian force comprising only the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade commanded by
Brig Thomas K. Theogaraj
, who formed a defensive horseshoe formation to counter the advancing Pakistani force.
[89]
[90]
[91]
The Pakistani tanks were larger in quantity and superior in quality and gave them a huge advantage. At the
Battle of Asal Uttar
, the Pakistani force fell into the Indian formation which was well positioned and well camouflaged which led to around a 97 Pakistani tanks being destroyed against only 32 tanks from the Indian side. The battle was a tremendous success for India which completely halted the Pakistani advance on the Punjab front.
[92]
The town where the battle was fought came to be known as Patton Nagar, named after the thoroughly destroyed US-made
M48 Patton tanks
in the battle.
During the battle, Pakistani rail bound reinforcements were attacked and destroyed by IAF Gnats.
The hostilities in the Rajasthan Front commenced on 8 September. Initially, the Pakistan Desert Force and the Hur militia (followers of Pir Pagaro) were placed in a defensive role, a role for which they were well suited as it turned out. The Hurs were familiar with the terrain and the local area and possessed many essential desert survival skills which their opponents and their comrades in the Pakistan Army did not. Fighting as mainly light infantry, the Hur inflicted many casualties on the Indian forces as they entered Sindh. The Hurs were also employed as skirmishers, harassing the Indians in the Line of Control, a task they often undertook on camels. As the battle wore on, the Hurs and the Desert Force were increasingly used to attack and capture Indian villages inside
Rajasthan
.
[94]
Stalemate
The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered 3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of 1,920 km
2
(740 sq mi) of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held 550 km
2
(210 sq mi) of Indian territory.
[95]
The territory occupied by India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors,
[96]
[97]
while Pakistani ground gains were primarily in
deserts
opposite
Sindh
and in the
Chumb
sector near
Kashmir
.
[97]
Pakistan claims that it held 1,600 km
2
(620 sq mi) of Indian territory, while losing 1,200 km
2
(450 sq mi) of its territory.
[98]
[99]
[100]
[101]
Aerial warfare
The war saw the aircraft of
the Indian Air Force (IAF)
and the
Pakistan Air Force (PAF)
engaging in combat for the first time since independence. Although the two forces had previously faced off in the
First Kashmir War
during the late 1940s, that engagement was very limited in scale compared to the 1965 conflict.
[
citation needed
]
The IAF was flying large numbers of
Hawker Hunters
, Indian-manufactured
Folland Gnats
,
de Havilland Vampires
,
EE Canberra
bombers and a squadron of
MiG-21s
. The PAF's
fighter
force comprised 102
F-86F Sabres
and 12
F-104 Starfighters
, along with 24
B-57 Canberra
bombers
. During the conflict, the PAF claimed it was out-numbered by around 5:1.
[102]
The PAF's aircraft were largely of American origin, whereas the IAF flew an assortment of British and Soviet airplanes. However, the PAF's American aircraft were superior to those of the IAF's.
[103]
[104]
The F-86 Sabre was vulnerable to the diminutive
Folland Gnat
, nicknamed "
Sabre Slayer
".
[105]
The Gnat is credited by many independent and Indian sources as having shot down seven
Pakistani
Canadair Sabres
[a]
in the 1965 war.
[106]
[107]
while two Gnats were downed by PAF fighters. The PAF's
F-104 Starfighter
was the fastest fighter operating in the subcontinent at that time and was often referred to as "the pride of the PAF". However, according to
Air Commodore
Sajad Haider
, the F-104 did not deserve this reputation. Being "a high-level interceptor designed to neutralize Soviet strategic bombers at
altitudes
above 40,000 feet (12.19 km)," rather than engage in dogfights with agile fighters at low altitudes, it was "unsuited to the tactical environment of the region".
[108]
In combat the Starfighter was not as effective as the IAF's far more agile, albeit much slower,
Folland Gnat
fighter.
[109]
[110]
Yet it zoomed into an ongoing dogfight between Sabres and Gnats, at supersonic speed, successfully broke off the fight and caused the Gnats to egress.
An IAF Gnat, piloted by
Squadron Leader
Brij Pal Singh Sikand, landed at an abandoned Pakistani
airstrip
at
Pasrur
, as he lacked the fuel to return to his base, and was captured by the Pakistan Army. According to the pilot, he got separated from his formation due to a malfunctioning compass and radio.
[111]
[112]
This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the
Pakistan Air Force Museum, Karachi
.
Sqn Ldr
Saad Hatmi
who flew the captured aircraft to
Sargodha
, and later tested and evaluated its flight performance, presumed that Gnat was no "Sabre Slayer" when it came to dog fighting.
[112]
Three Indian
civilian aircraft
were shot down by PAF, one of which
shot down at Bhuj, Gujarat
was carrying
Balwantrai Mehta
,
chief minister
of the Indian state of
Gujarat
, total eight killed in the incident along with
Balwantrai Mehta
and his wife. The Pakistan Air Force had fought well in countering the much larger Indian Air Force and supported the ground forces.
[113]
The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses during the war, and few neutral sources have verified the claims of either country. The PAF claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes and lost 19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and lost 59.
[114]
According to
PAF
, It flew 86 F-86 Sabres, 10 F-104 Star fighters and 20 B-57 Canberra's in a parade soon after the war was over. Thus disproving the IAF's claim of downing 73 PAF fighters, which at the time constituted nearly the entire Pakistani front-line fighter force.
[115]
Indian sources have pointed out that, despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan sought to acquire additional aircraft from
Indonesia
,
Iraq
,
Iran
,
Turkey
, and China within 10 days of the beginning of the war.
[116]
The two air forces were rather equal in the conflict because much of the Indian air force remained farther east to guard against the possibility of China entering the war.
[117]
According to the independent sources, the PAF lost some 20 aircraft while the Indians lost 60?75.
[6]
[7]
Pakistan ended the war having depleted 17 percent of its front-line strength, while India's losses amounted to less than 10 percent. Moreover, the loss rate had begun to even out, and it has been estimated that another three weeks' fighting would have seen the Pakistani losses rising to 33 percent and India's losses totaling 15 percent. Air superiority was not achieved, and they were unable to prevent IAF fighter bombers and reconnaissance Canberra's from flying daylight missions over Pakistan. Thus, 1965 was a stalemate in terms of the air war with neither side able to achieve complete air superiority.
[117]
[118]
After the war, India's Chief of Air Staff
Marshal Arjan Singh
claimed that IAF was able to achieve air superiority within 3 days of the Pakistani air strikes.
[119]
However, according to Kenneth Werrell, the Pakistan Air Force "did well in the conflict and probably had the edge".
[120]
When hostilities broke out, the Pakistan Air Force with around 100 F-86s faced an enemy with five times as many combat aircraft; the Indians were also equipped with comparatively modern aircraft inventory. Despite this, Werrell credits the PAF as having the advantage of a "decade's experience with the Sabre" and pilots with long flight hours experience. One Pakistani fighter pilot,
MM Alam
, was credited with the record of downing five Indian aircraft in less than a minute, becoming the first known
flying ace
since the Korean War.
[120]
However, his claims were never confirmed by the
PAF
and is disputed by Indian sources
[121]
[122]
[123]
and some PAF officials.
[124]
[125]
[126]
Usage of tanks in battle
The 1965 war witnessed some of the largest tank battles since
World War II
. At the beginning of the war, the Pakistani Army had both a numerical advantage in tanks, and better equipment overall.
[127]
Pakistani armor was largely American-made; it consisted mainly of
Patton M-47
and
M-48
tanks, but also included many
M4 Sherman
tanks, some
M24 Chaffee
light tanks and
M36 Jackson
tank destroyers
, equipped with 90 mm guns.
[128]
The bulk of India's tank fleet were older
M4 Sherman
tanks; some were up-gunned with the French high velocity CN 75 50 guns and could hold their own, whilst some older models were still equipped with the inferior
75 mm M3 L/40 gun
. Besides the M4 tanks, India fielded the British-made
Centurion Tank
Mk 7, with the 105 mm
Royal Ordnance L7
gun, and the
AMX-13
,
PT-76
, and
M3 Stuart
light tanks. Pakistan fielded a more significant number and more modern artillery; its guns out-ranged those of the Indian artillery, according to Pakistan's Major General T.H. Malik.
[129]
At the outbreak of war in 1965, Pakistan had about 15 armored cavalry regiments, each with about 45 tanks in three squadrons. Besides the Patton, there were about 200 M4 Shermans re-armed with 76 mm guns, 150 M24 Chaffee light tank and a few independent squadrons of M36B1 tank destroyers. Most of these regiments served in Pakistan's two armored divisions, the 1st and 6th Armored divisions ? the latter being in the process of formation.
The Indian Army of the time possessed 17 cavalry regiments, and in the 1950s had begun modernizing them by the acquisition of 164
AMX-13
light tanks and 188
Centurions
. The remainder of the cavalry units were equipped with
M4 Shermans
and some
M3A3 Stuart
light tanks. India had only a single armored division, the
1st 'Black Elephant' Armored Division
, which consisted of the
17th Horse
(The Poona Horse), also called 'Fakhr-i-Hind' ('Pride of India'), the
4th Horse
(Hodson's Horse), the
16th Cavalry
, the
7th Light Cavalry
, the
2nd Lancers
, the
18th Cavalry
and the
62nd Cavalry
, the two first named being equipped with Centurions. There was also the 2nd Independent Armored Brigade, one of whose three regiments, the
3rd Cavalry
, was also equipped with Centurions.
Despite the qualitative and numerical superiority of Pakistani armor,
[130]
Pakistan was outfought on the battlefield by India, which made progress into the Lahore-Sialkot sector, whilst halting Pakistan's counteroffensive on
Amritsar
;
[131]
[132]
they were sometimes employed faultily, such as charging prepared defenses during the defeat of Pakistan's
1st Armored Division
at
Asal Uttar
.
Neither the Indian nor Pakistani Army showed any great facility in the use of armored formations in offensive operations, whether the Pakistani 1st Armored Division at Asal Uttar (
Battle of Asal Uttar
) or the Indian 1st Armored Division at Chawinda. In contrast, both proved adept with smaller forces in a defensive role, such as India's 2nd Armored Brigade at Asal Uttar and Pakistan's 25th Cavalry at Chawinda.
The Centurion battle tank, with its 105 mm gun and heavy armor, performed better than the overly complex
[
need quotation to verify
]
Patton.
[132]
Naval hostilities
Naval operations did not play a prominent role in the war of 1965. On 7 September, a
flotilla
of the Pakistan Navy commanded by Commodore S.M. Anwar, carried out a bombardment of the Indian Navy's radar station coastal town of
Dwarka
, which was 320 kilometres (200 mi) south of the Pakistani port of Karachi.
Operation Dwarka
, as it is known, is a significant naval operation of the 1965 war
[133]
[134]
[135]
contested as a nuisance raid by some.
[136]
[137]
The attack on Dwarka led to questions being asked in India's parliament
[138]
and subsequent post-war modernization and expansion of the Indian Navy, with an increase in budget from
Rs. 35 crores
to
Rs. 115 crores
.
[139]
[140]
Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, and wished to restrict the war to a land-based conflict.
[141]
Covert operations
The
Pakistan Army
launched numerous covert operations to infiltrate and sabotage Indian
airbases
.
[142]
On 7 September 1965, the
Special Services Group
(SSG)
commandos
were
parachuted
into enemy territory. According to
Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army
General
Muhammad Musa
, about 135 commandos were airdropped at three Indian airfields (
Halwara
,
Pathankot
and
Adampur
). The daring attempt turned out to be an "unmitigated disaster".
[142]
Only 22 commandos returned to Pakistan as planned, 93 were taken prisoner (including one of the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt), and 20 were killed in encounters with the army, police, or civilians.
[
citation needed
]
The reason for the failure of the commando mission is attributed to the failure to provide maps, proper briefings and adequate planning or preparation.
[143]
Despite failing to sabotage the airfields, Pakistan sources claim that the commando mission affected some planned Indian operations. As the Indian
14th Infantry Division
was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the Pakistan Air Force found the road filled with transport, and destroyed many vehicles.
[144]
India responded to the covert activity by announcing rewards for captured Pakistani
spies
or paratroopers.
[145]
Meanwhile, in Pakistan, rumors spread that India had retaliated with its own covert operations, sending commandos deep into Pakistan territory,
[143]
but these rumors were later determined to be unfounded.
[146]
Assessment of losses
India and Pakistan make widely divergent claims about the damage they inflicted on each other and the amount of damage suffered by them. The following summarizes each nation's claims.
|
Indian claims
[147]
|
Pakistani claims
[148]
|
Independent Sources
[149]
|
Casualties
|
|
?
|
3,000 Indian soldiers, 3,800 Pakistani soldiers
|
Combat flying effort
|
4,073+ combat sorties
|
2,279 combat sorties
|
Aircraft lost
|
59
IAF
(official), 43
PAF
.
[157]
In addition, Indian sources claim that there were 13 IAF aircraft lost in accidents, and three Indian civilian aircraft shot down.
[158]
|
19 PAF, 104 IAF
|
20 PAF, 60?75 IAF
[159]
[160]
|
Aerial victories
|
17 + 3 (post-war)
|
30
|
?
|
Tanks destroyed
|
128 Indian tanks, 152 Pakistani tanks captured, 150 Pakistani tanks destroyed. Officially, 471 Pakistani tanks destroyed and 38 captured
[161]
|
165 Pakistan tanks
[
dubious
–
discuss
]
[
citation needed
]
|
Land area won
|
3,900 km
2
(1,500 sq mi) of Pakistani territory
|
650 km
2
(250 sq mi) of Indian territory
|
India held 1,840 km
2
(710 sq mi) of Pakistani territory and Pakistan held 540 km
2
(210 sq mi) of Indian territory
|
Neutral assessments
There have been several neutral assessments of the losses incurred by both India and Pakistan during the war. Most of these assessments agree that India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared. Some neutral assessments are mentioned below ?
The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other. Losses were relatively heavy?on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military defeat by “Hindu India” and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government.
- Former
New York Times
reporter Arif Jamal wrote in his book
Shadow War
[10]
?
This time, India's victory was nearly total: India accepted a cease-fire only after it had occupied 740 square miles [1,900 km
2
], though Pakistan had made marginal gains of 210 square miles [540 km
2
] of territory. Despite the obvious strength of the Indian win, both countries claim to have been victorious.
- Devin T. Hagerty wrote in his book
South Asia in world politics
[162]
?
The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time the United Nations intervened on September 22, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.
- In his book
National identity and geopolitical visions
,
[163]
Gertjan Dijkink writes ?
The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.
In three weeks, the second Indo-Pak War ended in what appeared to be a draw when the embargo placed by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements for both armies forced the cessation of conflict before either side won a clear victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.
- In his book titled
The greater game: India's race with destiny and China
, David Van Praagh wrote
?
India won the war. It held on to the Vale of Kashmir, the prize Pakistan vainly sought. It gained 1,840 km
2
[710 sq mi] of Pakistani territory: 640 km
2
[250 sq mi] in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan's portion of the state; 460 km
2
[180 sq mi] of the Sailkot sector; 380 km
2
[150 sq mi] far to the south of Sindh; and most critical, 360 km
2
[140 sq mi] on the Lahore front. Pakistan took 540 km
2
[210 sq mi] of Indian territory: 490 km
2
[190 sq mi] in the Chhamb sector and 50 km
2
[19 sq mi] around Khem Karan.
- Dennis Kux
's
India and the United States estranged democracies
also provides a summary of the war,
[165]
Although both sides lost heavily in men and material, and neither gained a decisive military advantage, India had the best of the war. New Delhi achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to seize Kashmir by force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated.
- A region in turmoil: South Asian conflicts since 1947
by Robert Johnson mentions
[166]
?
India's strategic aims were modest ? it aimed to deny the Pakistani Army victory, although it ended up in possession of 720 square miles [1,900 km
2
] of Pakistani territory for the loss of just 220 square miles [570 km
2
] of its own.
- An excerpt from William M. Carpenter and David G. Wiencek's
Asian security handbook: terrorism and the new security environment
[167]
?
A brief, but furious 1965 war with India began with a covert Pakistani thrust across the Kashmiri cease-fire line and ended up with the city of Lahore threatened with encirclement by the Indian Army. Another UN-sponsored cease-fire left borders unchanged, but Pakistan's vulnerability had again been exposed.
- English historian
John Keay
's
India: A History
provides a summary of the 1965 war
[168]
?
The 1965 Indo-Pak war lasted barely a month. Pakistan made gains in the Rajasthan desert, but its main push against India's Jammu-Srinagar road link was repulsed, and Indian tanks advanced to within a sight of Lahore. Both sides claimed victory, but India had most to celebrate.
- Uk Heo and Shale Asher Horowitz write in their book
Conflict in Asia: Korea, China-Taiwan, and India-Pakistan
[169]
?
Again, India appeared, logistically at least, to be in a superior position, but neither side was able to mobilize enough strength to gain a decisive victory.
Conflict resumed again in early 1965, when Pakistani and Indian forces clashed over disputed territory along the border between the two nations. Hostilities intensified that August when the Pakistani army attempted to take Kashmir by force. The attempt to seize the state was unsuccessful, and the second India-Pakistan War reached a stalemate.
Ceasefire
On 20 September, the
United Nations Security Council
unanimously passed a
resolution
, which noted that its previous two resolutions went "unheeded" and now "demanded" an unconditional ceasefire from both nations within 48 hours.
[171]
[172]
India immediately accepted,
[b]
while Pakistan accepted it on 23 September, with some notable dramatics.
[175]
India and Pakistan accused each other of ceasefire violations; India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days, while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India.
[176]
In addition to the expected exchange of
small arms
and artillery fire, India reported that Pakistan utilized the ceasefire to capture the Indian village of Chananwalla in the
Fazilka
sector. This village was recaptured by Indian troops on 25 December. On 10 October, a
B-57 Canberra
on loan to the PAF was damaged by three
SA-2
missiles fired from the IAF base at
Ambala
.
[177]
A Pakistani Army
Auster AOP
was shot down on 16 December, killing one Pakistani army captain; on 2 February 1967, an AOP was shot down by IAF
Hawker Hunters
.
The ceasefire remained in effect until the start of the
Indo-Pakistani war of 1971
.
Tashkent Declaration
The United States and the
Soviet Union
used significant diplomatic tools to prevent any further escalation in the conflict between the two South Asian nations. The Soviet Union, led by Premier
Alexei Kosygin
, hosted peace negotiations in
Tashkent
(now in
Uzbekistan
), where Indian Prime Minister
Lal Bahadur Shastri
and Pakistani President
Muhammad Ayub Khan
signed the
Tashkent Declaration
on 10 January 1966,
[178]
agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than 25 February 1966. In
India
, the agreement was criticized because it did not contain a no-war pact or any renunciation of guerrilla warfare across
Kashmir
.
India's Prime Minister,
Shastri
, suffered a fatal heart attack soon after the
Tashkent Agreement
on 11 January 1966. As a consequence, the public outcry in India against the peace declaration transformed into a wave of sympathy for the ruling
Indian National Congress
.
[179]
Public perceptions
The ceasefire was criticized by many Pakistanis who, relying on fabricated official reports and the controlled Pakistani press, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains. The protests led to student riots.
[180]
Pakistan State's reports had suggested that their military was performing admirably in the war ? which they incorrectly blamed as being initiated by India ? and thus the
Tashkent Declaration
was seen as having forfeited the gains.
[181]
Some recent books written by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-
ISI
chief Lieutenant General
Mahmud Ahmed
Durrani initially titled
The Myth of 1965 Victory
,
[182]
reportedly exposed Pakistani fabrications about the war, but all copies of the book were bought by the Pakistan Army to prevent circulation because the topic was "too sensitive".
[183]
[184]
The book was published with the revised title
History of Indo Pak War 1965
, published by Services Book Club, a part of the Pakistan military and printed by Oxford University Press, Karachi. A few copies of the book have survived.
[185]
A version was published in India as
Illusion of Victory: A Military History of the Indo-Pak War-1965
by Lexicon Publishers.
[186]
Recently a new Pakistani impression has been published in 2017.
Intelligence failures
Strategic miscalculations by both India and Pakistan ensured that the war ended in a stalemate.
Indian miscalculations
Indian military intelligence gave no warning of the impending Pakistan invasion. The Indian Army failed to recognize the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in
Chumb
and suffered significant losses as a result.
The "
Official War History ? 1965
", drafted by the
Ministry of Defense of India
in 1992, was a long-suppressed document that revealed other miscalculations. According to the document, on 22 September when the
Security Council
was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India could possibly win the war, were he to delay accepting the ceasefire. The general replied that most of India's frontline ammunition had been used up, and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank losses. It was determined later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired, and India held twice the number of tanks as Pakistan. By this time, the Pakistani Army had used close to 80% of its ammunition.
Air Chief Marshal (retd.) P.C. Lal, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of coordination between the
IAF
and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans, drafted by the Ministry of Defense and General Chaudhari, did not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lal as the "Supremo Syndrome", a patronizing attitude sometimes held by the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military.
[147]
Pakistani miscalculations
The Pakistani Army's failures began with the supposition that a generally discontented Kashmiri people would revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and decisive victory. The Kashmiri people, on the other hand, remained calm and collected. The Indian Army was given enough information to understand
Operation Gibraltar
and that they were battling not insurgents, as they had initially thought, but Pakistani Army regulars.
The Pakistani Army didn't know that Indian leaders wanted to attack the southern part of the country to start a new war. Pakistan had to send troops to the southern part of the country to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead of using them to help get to Kashmir.
Pakistan's attempt to capture Ahnoor, a town north-east of Jammu and a key region for communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was a failure. Many Pakistani commentators said that the Ayub Khan administration was indecisive during "
Operation Grand Slam
". The critics contend that the mission was unsuccessful due to Ayub Khan's awareness of the significance of Akhnoor to India, referring to it as India's '
jugular vein
', and his reluctance to invade it and initiate a conflict. Although progress was made in Akhnoor, General Ayub Khan relieved the commanding officer,
Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik
, and replaced him with General
Yahya Khan
. During the replacement, a 24-hour pause was observed, enabling the Indian army to regroup in Akhnoor and successfully repel a sluggish assault led by General Yahya Khan. The Indian Chief of Staff of the Western Command said, "The enemy came to our rescue." Then, Akhtar Hussain Malik criticized Ayub Khan for inventing Operation Gibraltar, which ultimately failed, and for denying him command at a crucial point in the conflict. Malik said he would tell the truth about the war and how the army failed, but later decided not to because he was afraid of being banned.
[187]
Some authors have said that a
war game
? that was held in March 1965 at the
Institute for Defense Analyses
in the United States might have encouraged Pakistan. The exercise concluded that Pakistan would prevail in the event of a conflict with India.
[188]
[189]
Other authors like
Stephen P. Cohen
, have consistently commented that the Pakistan Army had "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military … the 1965 war was a shock."
[190]
During the war, the Pakistani
Air Marshal
and
Commander-in-Chief
of PAF,
Nur Khan
, later stated that it is the Pakistan Army that should be held accountable for initiating the conflict, rather than India.
[191]
[192]
However, propaganda about the war continued in Pakistan,
[193]
[194]
with most of the blame being placed on the leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures. This pattern persisted until the disastrous outcome of the Indo-Pakistani war in 1971.
Involvement of other nations
The United States and the United Kingdom have been the principal suppliers of military materiel to India and Pakistan since 1947. Both India and Pakistan were Commonwealth republics. While India had pursued a policy of nominal non-alignment, Pakistan was a member of both
CENTO
and
SEATO
and an ally of the West in its struggle against communism.
[195]
Well before the conflict began, however, Britain and the United States had suspected Pakistan of joining both alliances out of opportunism to acquire advanced weapons for a war against India. They had therefore limited their military aid to Pakistan to maintain the existing balance of power in the subcontinent.
[196]
In 1959, however, Pakistan and the United States had signed an Agreement of Cooperation under which the United States agreed to take "appropriate action, including the use of armed forces" to assist the Government of Pakistan at its request.
[197]
By 1965, American and British analysts had recognised the two international groupings, CENTO and SEATO, and Pakistan's continued alliance with the West as being largely meaningless.
[198]
Following the start of the 1965 war, both the United States and Britain took the view that the conflict was largely Pakistan's fault, and suspended all arms shipments to both India and Pakistan.
[18]
While the United States maintained a neutral stance, the British Prime Minister, Harold Wilson, condemned India for aggression after its army advanced towards Lahore; his statement was met with a furious rebuttal from India.
[199]
Internationally, the level of support which Pakistan received was limited at best.
[200]
[201]
Iran and Turkey issued a joint communique on 10 September which placed the blame on India, backed the United Nations' appeal for a cease-fire and offered to deploy troops for a UN peacekeeping mission in Kashmir.
[203]
Pakistan received support from Indonesia, Iran, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia in the form of six naval vessels, jet fuel, guns, and ammunition and financial support, respectively.
[204]
Pakistan didn't gain meaningful support at an international level.
[24]
[200]
</ref>
[206]
Since before the war, the People's Republic of China had been a major military associate of Pakistan and a military opponent of India, with whom it had
fought a brief war in 1962
. China had also become a foreign patron for Pakistan and had given Pakistan $60 million in development assistance in 1965.
[207]
During the war, China openly supported the Pakistani position. It took advantage of the conflict to issue a strongly worded ultimatum to India condemning its "aggression" in Tibet and hinting at nuclear retaliation by China (China had exploded its first nuclear device the previous year).
Despite strong fears of Chinese intervention on the side of Pakistan, the Chinese government ultimately exercised restraint.
[208]
This was partly due to the logistical difficulties of a direct Chinese military intervention against India and India's improved military strength after its defeat by China in 1962.
[201]
China had also received strong warnings by the American and Soviet governments against expanding the scope of the conflict by intervening.
In the face of this pressure, China backed down, extending the deadline for India to respond to its ultimatum and warning India against attacking
East Pakistan
.
[206]
Ultimately, Pakistan rejected Chinese offers of military aid, recognizing that accepting it would only result in further alienating Pakistan internationally.
International opinion considered China's actions to be dangerously reckless and aggressive, and it was soundly rebuked in the world press for its unnecessarily provocative stance during the conflict.
India's participation in the
Non-Aligned Movement
yielded little support from its members.
[209]
Support given by Indonesia to Pakistan was seen as a major Indian diplomatic failure, as Indonesia had been among the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement along with India.
[210]
Despite its close relations with India, the
Soviet Union
was more neutral than other nations during the war, inviting both nations to peace talks under its aegis in
Tashkent
.
[211]
Aftermath
India
Despite the declaration of a ceasefire, India was perceived by many as the victor due to its success in halting the Pakistan-backed insurgency in Kashmir.
[25]
In its October 1965 issue, the
Time
magazine
quoted a Western official assessing the consequences of the war
[212]
?
Now it's apparent to everybody that India is going to emerge as an Asian power in its own right.
In light of the failures of the
Sino-Indian War
, the outcome of the 1965 war was viewed as a "politico-strategic" victory for India. The Indian prime minister,
Lal Bahadur Shastri
, was hailed as a national hero in India.
[213]
While the overall performance of the Indian military was praised, military leaders were criticized for their failure to effectively deploy India's superior armed forces to achieve a decisive victory over Pakistan.
[214]
In his book
War in the modern world since 1815
, noted war historian
Jeremy Black
said that though Pakistan "lost heavily" during the 1965 war, India's hasty decision to call for negotiations prevented further considerable damage to the Pakistan Armed Forces. He elaborates
[215]
?
India's chief of army staff urged negotiations on the ground that they were running out of ammunition and their number of tanks had become seriously depleted. In fact, the army had used less than 15% of its ammunition compared to Pakistan, which had consumed closer to 80 percent and India had double the number of serviceable tanks.
In 2015,
Marshal of the Indian Air Force
Arjan Singh, the last surviving armed force commander of the conflict, gave his assessment that the war ended in a stalemate, but only due to international pressure for a ceasefire, and that India would have achieved a decisive victory had hostilities continued for a few days more:
[216]
For political reasons, Pakistan claims victory in the 1965 war. In my opinion, the war ended in a kind of stalemate. We were in a position of strength. Had the war continued for a few more days, we would have gained a decisive victory. I advised then prime minister Lal Bahadur Shastri not to agree to a ceasefire. But I think he was pressured by the United Nations and some countries.
As a consequence, India focussed on enhancing communication and coordination within and among the tri-services of the Indian Armed Forces. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering preceding the war, India established the
Research and Analysis Wing
for external
espionage
and
intelligence
. Major improvements were also made in
command and control
to address various shortcomings and the positive impact of these changes was clearly visible during the
Indo-Pakistani war of 1971
when India achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan within two weeks.
China's repeated threats to intervene in the conflict supporting Pakistan increased pressure on the government to take an immediate decision to develop
nuclear weapons
.
[217]
Despite repeated assurances, the United States did little to prevent extensive use of American arms by Pakistani forces during the conflict, thus irking India.
[218]
At the same time, the United States and United Kingdom refused to supply India with sophisticated weaponry which further strained the relations between the West and India.
[219]
These developments led to a significant change in India's foreign policy ? India, which had previously championed the cause of
non-alignment
, distanced itself further from Western powers and developed close relations with the
Soviet Union
. By the end of the 1960s, the Soviet Union emerged as the biggest supplier of military hardware to India.
[220]
From 1967 to 1977, 81% of India's arms imports were from the Soviet Union.
[221]
After the 1965 war, the arms race between India and Pakistan became even more asymmetric and India was outdistancing Pakistan by far.
[222]
India's defense budget too would increase gradually after the war, in 1966?1967 it would rise to 17% and by 1970?1971 it would rise to 25% of its revenue.
[223]
However, according to the World Bank data, India's defense expenditure by GDP decreased from 3.871% in 1965 to 3.141% in 1969, thereafter slightly increased to 3.652% in 1971.
[224]
Pakistan
After the war, a significant number of Pakistanis regarded their military performance to be positive. In Pakistan, 6 September is celebrated as
Defence Day
to remember how
Lahore
was able to defend itself against the Indian army. The performance of the Pakistani Air Force was particularly praised.
The Pakistani government was accused of spreading misinformation about the consequences of the war among its citizens.
[225]
In his book
Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani foreign policies
, S.M. Burke writes
[162]
?
After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965, the balance of military power had decisively shifted in favor of India. Pakistan had found it difficult to replace the heavy equipment lost during that conflict while her adversary, despite her economic and political problems, had been determinedly building up her strength.
Air Marshal (retired)
Nur Khan
, who headed the Pakistan Air Force in 1965, said in an interview with Dawn newspaper
[226]
?
The army “misled the nation with a big lie” ? that India rather than Pakistan provoked the war ? and that Pakistan won a “great victory”.
And since the “lie” was never rectified, the Pakistani “army came to believe its fiction, (and) has continued to fight unwanted wars,”
Pakistani commentator Haidar Imtiaz remarked:
[227]
The myth of ‘victory’ was created after the war had ended, to counter Indian claims of victory on the one hand and to shield the Ayub regime and the army from criticism on the other.
A book titled
Indo-Pakistan War of 1965: A Flashback
,
[228]
produced by the
Inter-Services Public Relations
of Pakistan, is used as the official history of the war, which omits any mention of the operations
Gibraltar
and
Grand Slam
, and begins with the Indian counter-offensive on the Lahore front. The Pakistan Army is claimed to have put up a "valiant defense of the motherland" and forced the attack in its tracks.
[227]
Most people agree that the idea of a mobile, hard-hitting Pakistan Army was badly hurt during the war because important breakthroughs were not made.
[229]
The military's ill-founded belief that their "
martial race
" of soldiers could defeat "Hindu India" in the conflict was criticized by several Pakistani writers.
[230]
[231]
Rasul Bux Rais, a Pakistani political analyst wrote
[232]
?
The 1965 war with India proved that Pakistan could neither break the formidable Indian defenses in an intense violent military campaign fashion nor could she sustain an all-out conflict for long.
Historian Akbar S Zaidi notes that Pakistan "lost terribly in the 1965 war".
[233]
The Pakistani air force, on the other hand, racked up considerable acclaim and esteem among the military and international warfare critics for its triumphant defense of Lahore and other crucial parts of the country and its hefty retaliation against India the day afterward. The air force's vigilance was also influenced by the fact that some pilots were frantically re-enlisted six times in a single hour when they detected Indian air raids. In Pakistan, the air force and army are honored on
Defence Day
and
Air Force Day
. These days are on 6 and 7 September, respectively.
[234]
[235]
Furthermore, Pakistan had lost more ground than it had gained during the conflict, and, perhaps even more crucial, it had failed to secure Kashmir. Many people consider this outcome to be a setback for Pakistan.
[26]
[27]
[28]
The faulty planning of
Operation Gibraltar
was criticized by senior Pakistani officials and military experts, which ultimately led to the conflict. The Tashkent declaration was also criticized in Pakistan, even though few people were aware of the seriousness of the situation at the end of the conflict. Political leaders were also subjected to criticism. Ayub Khan had espoused high expectations among the Pakistani populace regarding the superiority, if not invincibility, of its armed forces,
[236]
in accordance with the guidance of
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
, the foreign minister of Pakistan. Nonetheless, the failure of Pakistan to attain its military objectives during the conflict resulted in a political liability for Ayub.
[237]
After the defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions, an increasingly vocal opposition challenged the army's invincibility.
[238]
The economic contraction in Pakistan was one of the most significant outcomes of the conflict.
[239]
[240]
Pakistan had experienced impressive economic growth since the early 1960s, but the war ended that. Between 1964 and 1966, Pakistan's defense spending rose from 4.82% to 9.86% of GDP, putting a tremendous strain on its economy. In 1970?71, the expenditure on defense accounted for a staggering 32%
[223]
or 55.66% of the total government expenditure.
[241]
According to veterans of the war, the war greatly cost Pakistan economically, politically, and militarily.
[242]
Nuclear theorist Feroze Khan maintained that the 1965 war was a last
conventional attempt
to snatch Kashmir by military force, and Pakistan's own position in the international community, especially with the
United States
, began to deteriorate from the point the war started, while on the other hand, the alliance with China saw improvements.
[242]
Chairman joint chiefs
General
Tariq Majid
claims in his memoirs that
Zhou Enlai
had longed advised the government in the classic style of
Sun Tzu
: "to go slow, not to push India hard, and avoid a fight over Kashmir, 'for at least, 20?30 years, until you have developed your economy and consolidated your national power'."
[242]
General Majid maintained in
Eating Grass
that the "sane, philosophical and political critical thinking" was missing in Pakistan, and that the country had lost extensive human resources by fighting the war.
[242]
Pakistan was surprised by the lack of support from the United States, an ally with whom the country had signed an Agreement of Cooperation. The US turned neutral in the war when it cut off military supplies to Pakistan (and India);
[
citation needed
]
an action that the Pakistanis took as a sign of betrayal.
[243]
After the war, Pakistan would increasingly look towards China as a major source of military hardware and political support.
Another negative consequence of the war was growing resentment against the Pakistani government in
East Pakistan
(present day
Bangladesh
),
[190]
particularly for West Pakistan's obsession with Kashmir.
[244]
Bengali
leaders accused the central government of not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir.
[245]
In fact, despite some Pakistan Air Force attacks being launched from bases in East Pakistan during the war, India did not retaliate in that sector,
[246]
although East Pakistan was defended only by an understrengthed infantry division (14th Division), sixteen planes and no tanks.
[247]
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
was critical of the disparity in military resources deployed in East and West Pakistan, calling for greater autonomy for East Pakistan, an action that ultimately led to the
Bangladesh Liberation War
and
another war
between India and Pakistan in 1971.
Pakistan celebrates
Defence Day
every year to commemorate 6 September 1965 to pay tribute to the soldiers killed in the war.
[248]
However, Pakistani journalists, including
Taha Siddiqui
[249]
and Haseeb Asif
[250]
have criticized the celebration of Defence Day.
Awards
National awards
- Santu Jouharmal Shahaney
, an
IOFS
officer, served as the first Indian Director General
Ordnance Factories
(DGOF). He was awarded
Padma Bhushan
, by the Government of India, in the Civil Service category.
[251]
- K. C. Banerjee, an
IOFS
officer. Received
Padma Shri
in 1967, for his contributions during the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965, as the General Manager of
Rifle Factory Ishapore
,
[252]
that developed and manufactured the
7.62 Self-Loading Automatic Rifle
, that played decisive role in India's victory in the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965.
[253]
[254]
[255]
[256]
- Joginder Singh Dhillon
, Lt. Gen, awarded the
Padma Bhushan
in 1966 by the Government of India for his role in the 1965 war,
[257]
becoming the first Indian Army officer to receive the award.
[258]
Gallantry awards
For bravery, the following soldiers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries, the Indian award
Param Vir Chakra
and the Pakistani award
Nishan-e-Haider
:
- India
- Pakistan
Battle honours
After the war, a total of 16
battle honours
and three
theatre honours
were awarded to units of the Indian Army, the notable among which are:
[261]
- Jammu and Kashmir, 1965 (theatre honour)
- Punjab 1965 (theatre honour)
- Rajasthan 1965 (theatre honour)
- Assal Uttar
- Burki
- Dograi
- Hajipir
- Hussainiwala
- Kalidhar
- OP Hill
- Phillora
|
See also
Notes
References
- ^
Nordeen, Lon O. (1985),
Air Warfare in the Missile Age
, Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 68?69,
ISBN
978-0-87474-680-8
,
archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Rakshak, Bharat.
"Page 15"
(PDF)
.
Official History
. Times of India. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 9 June 2011
. Retrieved
14 July
2011
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
SIngh, Lt.Gen Harbaksh (1991).
War Despatches
. New Delhi: Lancer International. p. 7.
ISBN
978-81-7062-117-1
.
- ^
a
b
Rakshak, Bharat.
"Page 14"
(PDF)
.
Official History
. Times of India. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 9 June 2011
. Retrieved
14 July
2011
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Thomas M. Leonard (2006).
Encyclopedia of the developing world
. Taylor & Francis. pp. 806?.
ISBN
978-0-415-97663-3
.
Archived
from the original on 5 February 2023
. Retrieved
14 April
2011
.
- ^
a
b
"Indo-Pakistan Wars"
. Archived from
the original
on 8 May 2009.
- ^
a
b
Tucker, Spencer (2004).
Tanks: An Illustrated History of Their Impact
. ABC-CLIO. p. 172.
ISBN
978-1-57607-995-9
.
Archived
from the original on 5 February 2023
. Retrieved
15 November
2015
.
- ^
a
b
c
Jamal, Shadow War 2009
, p. 86.
- ^
Montgomery, Evan Braden (24 May 2016).
In the Hegemon's Shadow: Leading States and the Rise of Regional Powers
. Cornell University Press.
ISBN
978-1-5017-0400-0
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
22 September
2021
.
- ^
Hali, S. M. (2011). "Operation Gibraltar ? an unmitigated disaster?".
Defence Journal
.
15
(1?2): 10?34 – via EBSCO.
- ^
Lyon, Peter (2008).
Conflict between India and Pakistan: an encyclopedia
. ABC-CLIO. p. 82.
ISBN
978-1-57607-712-2
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
30 October
2011
.
- ^
Dijink, Gertjan (2002).
National Identity and Geopolitical Visions: Maps of Pride and Pain
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-134-77129-5
.
The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.
- ^
a
b
c
Pakistan :: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
.
Library of Congress Country Studies
, United States of America. April 1994.
Archived
from the original on 7 January 2016
. Retrieved
2 October
2010
.
"Losses were relatively heavy?on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan."
- ^
Hagerty, Devin (2005).
South Asia in world politics
. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 26.
ISBN
978-0-7425-2587-0
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
12 November
2020
.
Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time the
United Nations intervened
on 20 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.
- ^
Wolpert, Stanley (2005).
India
(3rd ed. with a new preface. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 235.
ISBN
978-0-520-24696-6
.
Archived
from the original on 17 January 2023
. Retrieved
15 November
2015
.
Quote: India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.
- ^
Kux, Dennis (1992).
India and the United States : Estranged democracies, 1941?1991
. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press. p. 238.
ISBN
978-0-7881-0279-0
.
Archived
from the original on 17 January 2023
. Retrieved
15 November
2015
.
Quote: India had the best of the war.
- ^
"Asia: Silent Guns, Wary Combatants"
.
Time
. 1 October 1965.
Archived
from the original on 7 January 2016
. Retrieved
30 August
2013
.
Quote: India, by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war.
Alternate link content.time.com
Archived
2 November 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Kux, Dennis (2006).
India-Pakistan Negotiations: Is Past Still Prologue?
. US Institute of Peace Press. p. 30.
ISBN
978-1-929223-87-9
.
The conflict was short, but nasty. After seventeen days, both sides accepted a UN Security Council call for a cease-fire. Although the two militaries fought to a standoff, India won by not losing.
- ^
a
b
Small, Andrew (2015).
The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics
. Oxford University Press. p. 17.
ISBN
978-0-19-021075-5
.
"… the war itself was a disaster for Pakistan, from the first failed attempts by Pakistani troops to precipitate an insurgency in Kashmir to the appearance of Indian artillery within range of Lahore International Airport."
- ^
a
b
Conley, Jerome (2001).
Indo-Russian military and nuclear cooperation: lessons and options for U.S. policy in South Asia
. Lexington Books.
ISBN
978-0-7391-0217-6
.
- ^
a
b
Profile of Pakistan
Archived
2 August 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
?
U.S. Department of State
,
Failure of U.S.'s Pakistan Policy
Archived
12 July 2010 at the
Wayback Machine
? Interview with
Steve Coll
- ^
a
b
Speech of Bill McCollum
Archived
4 March 2016 at the
Wayback Machine
in
United States House of Representatives
12 September 1994
- ^
a
b
South Asia in World Politics By Devin T. Hagerty, 2005 Rowman & Littlefield,
ISBN
0-7425-2587-2
, p. 26
- ^
Jogindar Singh (1993).
Behind the Scene:An Analysis of India's Military Operations, 1947-1971
. p. 238.
In the final analysis Pakistan maintained air superiority over the combat zones from 6 September onwards
- ^
John Andreas Olsen (2018).
Routledge Handbook of Air Power
. Routledge.
Careful analysis available in the public domain tends to list IAF losses as sixty-five aircraft to all causes and PAF losses at twenty-five aircraft….Finally, there was agreement that the losses suffered by the IAF were not commensurate with the value gained in terms of the effect on the adversary and its combat efficiency.
- ^
Kaushik Roy (2017).
Conventional Warfare in South Asia, 1947 to the present
. Routledge.
point that the PAF's superior strategy enabled it to win air superiority by 5 September bears serious consideration. The preemptive air strike over the Indian air fields and the subsequent provocation of the IAF to fight over the heavily defended Pakistani airfields did indeed result in heavy attrition of the IAF's aircraft.
- ^
Jeremy Black (2016).
Air Power:A Global History
. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
ISBN
9781442250970
.
In the brief 1965 war between India and Pakistan, the two air forces were heavily engaged. The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) was able to inflict greater casualties despite being smaller. This owed much to the technical superiority of the PAF's F-86 Sabres over the IAF's Hunters and Mysteres.
- ^
Tarapore, Arzan (2 January 2023).
"Defence without deterrence: India's strategy in the 1965 war"
.
Journal of Strategic Studies
.
46
(1): 150?179.
doi
:
10.1080/01402390.2019.1668274
.
ISSN
0140-2390
.
S2CID
211312207
.
- ^
Awan, Ayesha Azmat (7 September 2022).
"Looking back at India's failed strategy in 1965 War"
.
Global Village Space
. Retrieved
27 July
2023
.
- ^
a
b
Riedel, Bruce (2013).
Avoiding Armageddon: America, India, and Pakistan to the Brink and Back
. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 67?70.
ISBN
978-0-8157-2408-7
.
- ^
Riedel, Bruce (2013).
Avoiding Armageddon: America, India, and Pakistan to the Brink and Back
. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 69?70.
ISBN
978-0-8157-2408-7
.
"The legacy of the Johnson arms cut-off remains alive today. Indians simply do not believe that America will be there when India needs military help … the legacy of the U.S. “betrayal” still haunts U.S.-Pakistan relations today."
- ^
a
b
c
Brecher, Michael; Wilkenfeld, Jonathan (November 1997).
A study of crisis
. University of Michigan Press. pp. 170?172.
ISBN
978-0-472-10806-0
. Retrieved
3 November
2011
.
- ^
Thomas, Raju G. C. (14 July 2014).
Indian Security Policy: Foreword by Joseph S. Nye
. Princeton University Press. p. 21.
ISBN
978-1-4008-5819-4
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
8 March
2022
.
The transfer of American arms under these two pacts included… Patton… Star fighter…Sabre…Canberra…estimated about $700 million.
- ^
"The Double Game"
.
The New Yorker
. 8 May 2011.
Archived
from the original on 20 March 2022
. Retrieved
26 February
2022
.
- ^
a
b
"India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941?1991,
ISBN
1-4289-8189-6
, DIANE Publishing, pp 235, 238
- ^
SCHOFIELD, JULIAN (2000).
"Militarized Decision-Making for War in Pakistan: 1947-1971"
.
Armed Forces & Society
.
27
(1): 140.
doi
:
10.1177/0095327X0002700108
.
ISSN
0095-327X
.
JSTOR
45346403
.
S2CID
144532810
.
Archived
from the original on 14 May 2022
. Retrieved
14 May
2022
.
…and the balance of military capabilities: India was in the early stages of a military buildup against China, which prompted Pakistani military decision-makers to exploit what they saw as a window of opportunity.
- ^
Press Trust of India, Islamabad bureau (14 September 2009).
"Pak's intrusions on borders triggered 1965 war: Durrani"
.
Times of India
.
Archived
from the original on 22 September 2009
. Retrieved
3 November
2011
.
- ^
Hiro, Dilip (24 February 2015).
The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan
. Nation Books, Hiro. OPERATION DESERT HAWK: A DRY RUN.
ISBN
9781568585031
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
19 October
2016
.
- ^
Dutt, Sagarika; Bansal, Alok (17 June 2013).
South Asian Security: 21st Century Discourses
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-136-61767-6
.
- ^
Hiro, Dilip (24 February 2015).
The Longest August: The Unflinching Rivalry Between India and Pakistan
. Nation Books, Hiro. OPERATION DESERT HAWK: A DRY RUN.
ISBN
9781568585031
. Retrieved
19 October
2016
.
- ^
Bhushan, Chodarat.
"Tulbul, Sir Creek and Siachen: Competitive Methodologies"
Archived
21 April 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
. South Asian Journal. March 2005,
Encyclopædia Britannica
and
Open Forum ? UNIDIR
Archived
27 March 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"Pakistan Boundaries ? Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System"
.
- ^
"The Lahore Declaration and Beyond: Maritime Confidence-Building Measures in South Asia"
(PDF)
.
Stimson Center
. Retrieved
11 September
2023
.
- ^
"LAND AND GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN: BIG MOUNTAINS, GLACIERS AND DISPUTED TERRITORY | Facts and Details"
.
- ^
Hiranandani, G. M. (2000).
Transition to Triumph: History of the Indian Navy, 1965-1975
. Lancer Publishers. p. 21.
ISBN
978-1-897829-72-1
.
- ^
Hiranandani, G. M. (2000).
Transition to Triumph: History of the Indian Navy, 1965-1975
. Lancer Publishers. p. 21.
ISBN
978-1-897829-72-1
.
- ^
Defence Journal. September 2000
- ^
Mankekar, D. R. (1967).
Twentytwo fateful days: Pakistan cut to size
. Manaktalas. pp. 62?63, 67
. Retrieved
8 November
2011
.
- ^
"Battle of Hajipir Pass 1965"
. Indian Defence Review. 29 August 2020.
- ^
"Giving Haji Pir back to Pak a mistake: Gen Dyal"
.
Archived
from the original on 1 April 2020
. Retrieved
28 May
2015
.
- ^
a
b
c
"Underestimating India"
. Indian Express. 4 September 2009.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2018
. Retrieved
21 December
2011
.
- ^
"Pakistan's Endgame in Kashmir ? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace"
. Carnegieendowment.org.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2018
. Retrieved
21 December
2011
.
- ^
"Indian Air Force :: Flight of the Falcon"
. Bharat-rakshak.com. 28 August 2010.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2018
. Retrieved
21 December
2011
.
- ^
"1965: Indian Army invades W Pakistan"
. 6 September 1965.
Archived
from the original on 9 March 2020
. Retrieved
26 June
2018
.
- ^
Brigadier Desmond E Hayde, "The Battle of Dograi and Batapore", Natraj Publishers, New Delhi, 2006
- ^
The Tribune, Chandigarh, India ? Opinions
Archived
10 August 2019 at the
Wayback Machine
. Tribuneindia.com. Retrieved on 14 April 2011.
- ^
"Indian Army's Continuity and Transformation Through the Prism of the Battle of Dograi"
(PDF)
. Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 7 March 2022
. Retrieved
7 December
2021
.
- ^
Army cries out for a second railway line between Barmer and Jaisalmer
Archived
5 June 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
. Hindustan Times (17 December 2009). Retrieved on 14 April 2011.
- ^
Zaloga, Steve (1999)
The M47 and M48 Patton tanks
ISBN
1-85532-825-9
pg.34-35.
- ^
Prabhakar, Peter Wilson (2003).
Wars, proxy-wars and terrorism: post independent India
. Mittal Publications, 2003. p. 84.
ISBN
978-81-7099-890-7
.
- ^
James Rapson, Edward; Wolseley Haig;
Sir Richard Burn
; Henry Dodwell; Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler;
Vidya Dhar Mahajan
. "Political Developments Since 1919 (India and Pakistan)".
The Cambridge History of India
. Vol. 6. S. Chand. p. 1013.
- ^
Singh, Lt.Gen Harbaksh (1991).
War Despatches
. New Delhi: Lancer International. p. 147.
ISBN
81-7062-117-8
.
- ^
Zaloga, Steve; Laurier, Jim (1999).
The M47 and M48 Patton tanks
. Bloomsbury USA. p. 35.
ISBN
978-1-85532-825-9
.
- ^
Steven J. Zaloga (1999).
The M47 and M48 Patton Tanks
. Osprey Publishing. p. 35.
ISBN
978-1-85532-825-9
.
- ^
Singh, Lt. Gen.Harbaksh (1991).
War Despatches
. New Delhi: Lancer International. p. 159.
ISBN
978-81-7062-117-1
.
- ^
Rakshak, Bharat.
"Operations in Sialkot Sector pg32"
(PDF)
.
Official History
. Times of India. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 9 June 2011
. Retrieved
12 July
2011
.
- ^
Dandapani, Vijay (18 January 2015).
"Unsung hero"
.
The Hindu
.
- ^
"Brigadier Thomas Theograj"
. Retrieved
13 July
2023
.
- ^
"Saga of Strategy & Courage"
. Retrieved
13 July
2023
.
- ^
Saxena, sangeeta (14 August 2021).
"Fifty five years since India won the Battle of Asal Uttar in 1965"
.
ADU - Aviation Defence Universe
. Retrieved
15 May
2024
.
- ^
History of Indo-Pak War of 1965. Lt Gen Mahmud Ahmed (Retd.).
ISBN
969-8693-01-7
- ^
"Delhi plans carnival on Pakistan war - Focus on 1965 conflict and outcome"
. Archived from
the original
on 2 June 2015
. Retrieved
3 June
2015
.
- ^
The Story of My Struggle By Tajammal Hussain Malik 1991, Jang Publishers, p. 78
- ^
a
b
Arif, General K. M.
(2001).
Khaki Shadows: Pakistan 1947?1997
. Oxford University Press. p. 88.
ISBN
978-0-19-579396-3
.
- ^
Haqqani, Husain (5 November 2013).
Magnificent Delusions: Pakistan, the United States, and an Epic History of Misunderstanding
. PublicAffairs.
ISBN
9781610393171
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
18 May
2022
– via Google Books.
- ^
Nordeen, Lon O. (2002).
Air warfare in the missile age
(2 ed.). Smithsonian Institution Press.
ISBN
978-1-58834-083-2
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- ^
"Illustrated Weekly of Pakistan"
. Illustrated Weekly of Pakistan. 1966.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
17 June
2018
.
- ^
Grover, Verinder; Arora, Ranjana (1998).
50 Years of Indo-Pak Relations: Chronology of events, important documents, 1947?1997
. Deep and Deep Publications. p. 43.
ISBN
9788176290593
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
17 June
2018
.
- ^
John Fricker,
"Pakistan's Air Power"
Archived
14 January 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
,
Flight International
issue published 1969, p. 89, retrieved: 3 November 2009
- ^
Joshi, Sameer (6 September 2019).
"1965 India-Pakistan war: How IAF's heroes slayed PAF's superior Sabre fighter jets"
.
ThePrint
.
Archived
from the original on 27 June 2020
. Retrieved
24 June
2020
.
- ^
Conventional Warfare in South Asia, 1947 to the Present
. Routledge. 2017.
ISBN
978-1-351-94867-8
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
12 November
2020
.
- ^
See the main article
Sabre Slayer
for the complete list on this issue, including sources.
- ^
Rakshak, Bharat.
"Indian Air Force Combat Kills, Indo Pakistan War 1965."
Archived
5 November 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
History.
Retrieved 4 November 2010.
- ^
Spick 2002, p. 161.
- ^
Ahmad Faruqui,
"The right stuff"
Archived
29 March 2010 at the
Wayback Machine
,
Dawn News
, 14 September 2009, Retrieved: 1 November 2009. Also published as
"The Debt Owed"
Archived
12 June 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
on 16 September 2009 by
[outlookindia.com]
- ^
Edward V. Coggins; Ed Coggins (15 May 2000).
Wings That Stay on
. Turner Publishing Company. pp. 164?.
ISBN
978-1-56311-568-4
.
Archived
from the original on 5 February 2023
. Retrieved
14 April
2011
.
- ^
Mike Spick (5 August 2002).
The Illustrated Directory of Fighters
. Zenith Imprint. pp. 161?.
ISBN
978-0-7603-1343-5
. Retrieved
14 April
2011
.
- ^
"1965 War, Chapter 3."
Archived
6 July 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
bharat-rakshak.com.
Retrieved: 4 November 2010.
- ^
a
b
Air Commodore M. Kaiser Tufail.
"Run … It's a 104"
.
Jang News
. Archived from
the original
on 19 March 2007.
- ^
Dr. Shah Alam (11 April 2012).
Pakistan Army: Modernisation, Arms Procurement and Capacity Building
. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 41.
ISBN
978-93-81411-79-7
.
- ^
www.bharat-rakshak.com
https://web.archive.org/web/20061105001826/http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Books/Review-Airwar65.html
. Archived from
the original
on 5 November 2006.
- ^
John Fricker, "Pakistan's Air Power",
Flight International
issue published 1969, pp. 89?90.
[1]
Archived
14 January 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
,
[2]
Archived
12 January 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
. Retrieved: 3 November 2009
- ^
SS Sashi (2008).
Encyclopaedia Indica: Independent India and wars ? III
. Anmol Publications. p. 15.
Pakistan had been seeking urgent help from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and China, for additional aircraft within 10 days of the war.
- ^
a
b
The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare Edited by Chris Bishop (amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384?387
ISBN
1-904687-26-1
)
- ^
Martin W. Bowman (30 January 2016).
"3. Indo-Pak wars"
.
Cold War Jet Combat: Air-to-Air Jet Fighter Operations, 1950?1972
.
Pen and Sword
.
ISBN
978-1-4738-7462-6
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
18 August
2021
.
- ^
Desk, India TV News (4 October 2015).
"We achieved air superiority in three days in 1965 war: AF Marshal Arjan Singh"
.
www.indiatvnews.com
. Retrieved
16 May
2024
.
- ^
a
b
Werrell, Kenneth (2013).
Sabres Over MiG Alley: The F-86 and the Battle for Air Superiority in Korea
.
Naval Institute Press
. p. 188.
ISBN
978-1-61251-344-7
.
- ^
30 Seconds Over Sargodha ? The Making of a Myth: 1965 Indo-Pak Air War, Chapter 5
Archived
7 February 2010 at the
Wayback Machine
,
Bharat Rakshak
- ^
Pakistan's Sabre Ace
by Jon Guttman, Aviation History, Sept 1998.
- ^
Singh, Pushpindar (1991).
Fiza Ya, Psyche of the Pakistan Air Force
. Himalayan Books. p. 30.
ISBN
978-81-7002-038-7
.
- ^
"War of attrition"
. 14 September 2015.
Archived
from the original on 14 October 2017
. Retrieved
26 March
2016
.
- ^
Haider, S. Sajad.
"Flight of the Falcon"
.
www.bharat-rakshak.com
.
Archived
from the original on 27 March 2016
. Retrieved
26 March
2016
.
- ^
Haider, Sayed Sajad (2009).
Flight of the Falcon
. Vanguard Books.
ISBN
978-969-402-526-1
.
- ^
A history of the Pakistan Army
Archived
7 September 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
? Defence Journal, Pakistan
- ^
90 mm M36 GUN MOTOR CARRIAGE "Jackson"
Archived
2 December 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
Post W.W.II, the M36 was employed by the
US Army
in Korea and was distributed to friendly nations including France, where it was used in Indo-China (Vietnam), Pakistan.
- ^
The Battle for Ravi-Sutlej Corridor 1965 A Strategic and Operational Analysis
Archived
7 October 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
Major A.H. Amin, 30 December 2001 Orbat
- ^
Seidenman Harrison, Selig (1978).
The Widening Gulf: Asian Nationalism and American Policy
. Free Press. p.
269
.
ISBN
978-0-02-914090-1
.
- ^
Hagerty, Devin T.
The Consequences of Nuclear Proliferation: Lessons from South Asia
. MIT Press. p. 70.
- ^
a
b
Heginbotham, Stanley J; Wriggins, William Howard (1971).
India and Japan: The Emerging Balance of Power in Asia
. Columbia University East Asian Institute. p. 254.
- ^
"Pakistan Navy: A Silent Force to Reckon with"
. Paknavy.gov.pk. Archived from
the original
on 5 December 2011
. Retrieved
21 December
2011
.
- ^
Pakistan Intelligence, Security Activities & Operations Handbook By IBP USA
- ^
India's Quest for Security: defense policies, 1947?1965 By Lorne John Kavic, 1967, University of California Press, pp 190
- ^
Working paper, Issue 192, Australian National University. Strategic and Defense Studies Center, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1989,
ISBN
0-7315-0806-8
, 9780-7315-0806-8
- ^
India's Foreign Policy, Ghosh Anjali, Dorling Kindersley Pvt Ltd,
ISBN
978-81-317-1025-8
- ^
Hiranandani, G. M. (January 2000).
Transition to triumph: history of the Indian Navy, 1965?1975
. Lancer Publishers. pp. 33?39.
ISBN
978-1-897829-72-1
. Retrieved
3 November
2011
.
- ^
South Asia's Nuclear Security Dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China By Lowell Dittmer, pp 77
- ^
Hobbs, David (2014),
British Aircraft Carriers: Design, Development & Service Histories
, Seaforth Publishing, p. 203,
ISBN
978-1-4738-5369-0
- ^
THE INDIAN END OF THE TELESCOPE India and Its Navy
Archived
7 February 2023 at the
Wayback Machine
by
Vice Admiral
Gulab Hiranandani, Indian Navy (Retired),
Naval War College Review
, Spring 2002, Vol. LV, No. 2
- ^
a
b
"SSG in the 1965 War"
. Defence Journal. Archived from
the original
on 27 September 2011
. Retrieved
27 July
2012
.
- ^
a
b
The Fighter Gap
Archived
9 October 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
by Shoab Alam Khan in
Defence Journal
- ^
Defence Journal: The Way it was
Archived
15 December 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
Extracts from Pakistan Army
Brigadier
(Retd.) ZA Khan's book
- ^
Ending the Suspense
17 September 1965, TIME magazine
- ^
Remembering Our Warriors Brig (Retd) Shamim Yasin Manto S.I.(M), S.Bt, Q&A session: ("How would you assess the failures and successes of the SSG in the 1965 War?")
Archived
3 May 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
February 2002, Defence Journal
- ^
a
b
c
d
"Ceasefire & After"
. Bharat-rakshak.com. Archived from
the original
on 16 July 2012
. Retrieved
27 July
2012
.
- ^
"Grand Slam ? A Battle of Lost Opportunities"
. Defencejournal.com. Archived from
the original
on 5 August 2012
. Retrieved
27 July
2012
.
- ^
"onwar"
. onwar. Archived from
the original
on 28 July 2012
. Retrieved
27 July
2012
.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 9 October 1965. pp. 520?522.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 16 October 1965. pp. 538?540.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 6 November 1965. pp. 571?573.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 13 November 1965. pp. 587?588.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 27 November 1965. pp. 624?626.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 1 January 1966. pp. 4?6.
- ^
"Part I-Section 4: Ministry of Defence (Army Branch)". The Gazette of India. 29 January 1966. pp. 59?61.
- ^
"Official History of IAF in 65 War"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 29 September 2012
. Retrieved
27 July
2012
.
- ^
Bharat-Rakshak.com
"Indian Air Force Losses -1965 War"
. Archived from
the original
on 27 September 2013
. Retrieved
11 February
2014
.
- ^
Group Captain Cecil Chaudhry, SJ ? Chowk: India Pakistan Ideas Identities.com
Archived
11 May 2005 at the
Wayback Machine
. Chowk (9 December 2007). Retrieved on 14 April 2011.
- ^
Singh, Pushpindar
(1991).
Fiza Ya, Psyche of the Pakistan Air Force
. Himalayan Books.
ISBN
978-81-7002-038-7
.
- ^
"IAF war kills in 1965 war"
(PDF)
. Orbat.com. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 27 November 2010
. Retrieved
29 December
2011
.
- ^
a
b
Hagerty, Devin (2005).
South Asia in world politics
. Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
978-0-7425-2587-0
.
- ^
Dijkink, Gertjan (1996).
National identity and geopolitical visions: maps of pride and pain
. Routledge, 1996.
ISBN
978-0-415-13934-2
.
- ^
http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft0489n6j7&chunk.id=d0e4022&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e4019&brand=eschol&query=martial%20arts#
Archived
7 February 2023 at the
Wayback Machine
India
by Stanley Wolpert. Published: University of California Press, 1990
- ^
"India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941?1991,
ISBN
1-4289-8189-6
, DIANE Publishing, Pg 238
- ^
Johnson, Robert (2005).
A region in turmoil: South Asian conflicts since 1947
. Reaktion Books.
ISBN
978-1-86189-257-7
.
- ^
William M. Carpenter, David G. Wiencek (2005).
Asian security handbook: terrorism and the new security environment
. M.E. Sharpe.
ISBN
978-0-7656-1553-4
.
- ^
John Keay (2003).
India: A History
. Grove Press.
ISBN
978-0-275-97779-5
.
- ^
Uk Heo, Shale Asher Horowitz (2000).
Conflict in Asia: Korea, China-Taiwan, and India-Pakistan
. Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
978-0-8021-3797-5
.
- ^
"Milestones: 1961?1968 - Office of the Historian"
.
history.state.gov
.
Archived
from the original on 8 July 2015
. Retrieved
26 August
2015
.
- ^
Fortna, Virginia Page (2004),
Peace Time: Cease-fire Agreements and the Durability of Peace
, Princeton University Press, p. 63,
ISBN
0-691-11512-5
,
archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
, retrieved
11 February
2021
- ^
Bajwa 2013
, pp. 303?304: "There was now a deadline for Pakistan, 0700 hours GMT, 22 September, to either accept or reject this resolution, barely 48 hours for Ayub to decide what to do…"
- ^
Joshi, Manoj (2008),
Kashmir, 1947?1965: A Story Retold
, India Research Press, p. 215,
ISBN
978-81-87943-52-5
,
archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
, retrieved
18 April
2021
: "After his meetings, [U Thant] made an appeal for an unconditional and immediate ceasefire to be effect as of September 14. India immediately accepted the proposal, but not Pakistan, which having gambled, now wanted to take something away from the table."
- ^
Bajwa 2013
, p. 311: "In a dramatic and emotional speech, Bhutto declared that Pakistan was bound to prevail as justice was with it, but concluded the speech by confirming that Pakistan would give the UN a final chance to resolve the Kashmir issue and would observe the ceasefire call and would 'stop firing' on 0300 hours, 23 September."
- ^
A Cease-Fire of Sorts 5 November 1965
?
TIME
- ^
"
The India-Pakistan Air War of 1965
", Jagan Mohan and Samir Chopra, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 2005
- ^
Lieven, Anatol (2012).
Pakistan: A Hard Country
. PublicAffairs.
ISBN
978-1610391627
. Retrieved
23 December
2016
.
- ^
Dilger, Robert (2003).
American transportation policy
. Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
978-0-275-97853-2
.
- ^
Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War By Victoria Schofield Published 2003, by I.B.Tauris
ISBN
1-86064-898-3
pp112
- ^
CONTROVERSY: Why Gohar Ayub is wrong about 1965 ? Khalid Hasan
Archived
23 July 2012 at
archive.today
quoting Pakistan author
Husain Haqqani
:
"The Pakistani people were told by the state that they had been victims of aggression and that the aggression had been repelled thanks to God. … official propaganda convinced the people of Pakistan that their military had won the war.”
Daily Times, 10 June 2005
- ^
Can? the ISI change its spots? By Akhtar Payami,
Dawn (newspaper)
7 October 2006
- ^
Army attempts to prevent book sales by Amir Mir
Archived
26 September 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
Gulf News 1 October 2006
Musharraf buys all copies of sensitive '65 war
Archived
20 February 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
Daily News & Analysis
- ^
Inside Story of Musharraf-Mahmood Tussle, Hassan Abbas, 26 Sep. 2006
Archived
12 June 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
? (Belfer Center for International Affairs,
Harvard Kennedy School of Government
)
- ^
"NDU Library Islamabad Pakistan"
.
111.68.99.107
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
14 May
2022
.
- ^
Ahmed, Mahmud (14 May 2002).
Illusion of Victory: A Military History of the Indo-Pak War-1965
. Lexicon Publishers.
ISBN
9789699063008
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
18 May
2022
– via Google Books.
- ^
Musharraf, the 'poor man's Ataturk' By Khalid Hasan
Archived
4 September 2012 at
archive.today
19 September 2004
Daily Times
- ^
The Crisis Game: Simulating International Conflict by Sidney F. Giffin
- ^
"An Impending Nuclear War Between India and Pakistan Over Kashmir |"
. 28 May 2011.
Archived
from the original on 17 May 2022
. Retrieved
14 May
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Stephen Philip Cohen (2004).
The Idea of Pakistan
. Brookings Institution Press.
ISBN
978-0-8157-1502-3
.
Pages 103, 73?74
- ^
Noor Khan for early end to army rule
? Pakistan Daily
The Nation
Archived
21 October 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
A word from Pak: 1965 was 'wrong'
Archived
12 January 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
The Times of India
6 September 2005
- ^
Editorial: The army and the people
Archived
23 July 2012 at
archive.today
Daily Times 1 June 2007
- ^
The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971
Analysis and reappraisal after the 1965 War
Archived
7 March 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin
- ^
Riedel, Bruce (2013).
Avoiding Armageddon: America, India, and Pakistan to the Brink and Back
. Brookings Institution Press. p. 55.
ISBN
978-0-8157-2408-7
.
- ^
Dimitrakis, Panagiotis (2012).
Failed Alliances of the Cold War: Britain's Strategy and Ambitions in Asia and the Middle East
. Tauris & Co. pp. 39?44.
ISBN
978-1-84885-974-6
.
"Defense aid was restricted to the extent that Pakistan would be able to present only a limited defense in the event of communist aggression … Western strategists sought to keep Pakistan … in a position where it did not feel itself powerful enough to initiate a confrontation with India."
- ^
United States ? Pakistan Alliance
.
Library of Congress Country Studies
, United States of America. April 1994.
Archived
from the original on 28 June 2010
. Retrieved
29 October
2010
.
- ^
Dimitrakis, Panagiotis (2012).
Failed Alliances of the Cold War: Britain's Strategy and Ambitions in Asia and the Middle East
. Tauris & Co. pp. 53?55.
ISBN
978-1-84885-974-6
.
- ^
Dimitrakis, Panagiotis (2012).
Failed Alliances of the Cold War: Britain's Strategy and Ambitions in Asia and the Middle East
. Tauris & Co. pp. 55?58.
ISBN
978-1-84885-974-6
.
- ^
a
b
Small, Andrew (2015).
The China-Pakistan Axis: Asia's New Geopolitics
. Oxford University Press. pp. 17?19.
ISBN
978-0-19-021075-5
.
"Mao had decided that China would intervene under two conditions?that India attacked East Pakistan, and that Pakistan requested Chinese intervention. In the end, neither of them [were] obtained."
- ^
a
b
Butt; Schofield, Usama; Julian (2012).
Pakistan: the U.S., geopolitics and grand strategies
. Pluto Press. p. 156.
ISBN
978-0-7453-3206-2
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
Dimitrakis, Panagiotis (2012).
Failed Alliances of the Cold War: Britain's Strategy and Ambitions in Asia and the Middle East
. Tauris & Co. p. 58.
ISBN
978-1-84885-974-6
.
- ^
Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology, By Anas Malik page 84
- ^
a
b
Riedel, Bruce (2013).
Avoiding Armageddon: America, India, and Pakistan to the Brink and Back
. Brookings Institution Press. pp. 66?68.
ISBN
978-0-8157-2408-7
.
- ^
Political Survival in Pakistan: Beyond Ideology, By Anas Malik page 85
- ^
Dimitrakis, Panagiotis (2012).
Failed Alliances of the Cold War: Britain's Strategy and Ambitions in Asia and the Middle East
. Tauris & Co. p. 57.
ISBN
978-1-84885-974-6
.
- ^
M. J. Akbar
(17 November 2014).
"High priest of modern India"
.
[The Economic Times
.
Archived
from the original on 7 March 2020
. Retrieved
17 November
2014
.
- ^
Shah, Amritlal B. (1966).
India's Defence and Foreign Policies
. Bombay: Manaktalas. p. 108.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
13 February
2021
.
- ^
Varma, Shanta Nedungadi (1999).
Foreign Policy Dynamics: Moscow and India's International Conflicts
. New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications. p. 105.
ISBN
978-81-7629-137-8
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
13 February
2021
.
- ^
Silent Guns, Wary Combatants
, TIME magazine, 1 October 1965
- ^
The 1965 war with Pakistan
Archived
17 April 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
?
Encyclopædia Britannica
- ^
Sunday Times, London. 19 September 1965
- ^
Black, Jeremy (2005).
War in the modern world since 1815
. Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
978-0-7425-2587-0
.
- ^
"1965 war: We achieved air superiority in three days, says Air Force Marshal Arjan Singh"
.
Economic Times
. 4 October 2015.
Archived
from the original on 7 October 2015
. Retrieved
28 October
2015
.
- ^
Perkovich, George (26 February 2002).
India's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation
. University of California Press, 1999.
ISBN
978-0-520-23210-5
.
- ^
Title: India and the United States estranged democracies, 1941?1991,
ISBN
1-4289-8189-6
, DIANE Publishing
- ^
Brzoska, Michael (1994).
Women's and Gender History in Global Perspective
. Univ of South Carolina Press, 1994.
ISBN
978-0-87249-982-9
.
- ^
Sharma, Ram (1999).
India-USSR relations
. Discovery Publishing House, 1999.
ISBN
978-81-7141-486-4
.
- ^
Duncan, Peter (1989).
The Soviet Union and India
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-415-00212-7
.
- ^
Zeev, Maoz (1990).
Paradoxes of war: on the art of national self-entrapmen
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-04-445113-6
.
- ^
a
b
Dixit, J.N. (2 September 2003).
India-Pakistan in War and Peace
. Routledge.
ISBN
1-134-40757-2
.
One notes an almost geometrical progression in the defense expenditure in both countries between the years 1966 and 1971. In 1966?1967, Pakistan's budget was US $473 million, or about 19 percent of government revenue. India's defense expenditure was US$ 1171 million or 17 percent of its budget. By 1970?1971, Pakistan's military budget had grown to 32 percent of its revenue, that is US$625 million. India's defense budget had increased by 25 percent to US$1466 million.
- ^
"Military expenditure (% of GDP) ? India | Data"
.
data.worldbank.org
.
Archived
from the original on 22 June 2020
. Retrieved
22 June
2020
.
- ^
Declassified telegram sent to the US Department of State
- ^
Khan, M Ilyas (5 September 2015).
"Operation Gibraltar: The Pakistani troops who infiltrated Kashmir to start a rebellion"
.
BBC News
. Archived from
the original
on 27 December 2021
. Retrieved
31 March
2022
.
- ^
a
b
Haidar Imtiaz,
1965: How Pakistan won the war of propaganda
Archived
15 November 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
, The Nation, 12 September 2015.
- ^
Inter-Services Public Relations (2015) [first published 1966],
Indo-Pakistan War of 1965: A Flashback
(PDF)
(Third ed.), Government of Pakistan, Department of Films and Publications,
archived
(PDF)
from the original on 28 January 2019
, retrieved
27 January
2019
- ^
Pakistan And Its Three Wars by Vice Adm (Retd.) Iqbal F Quadir
Archived
27 September 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
? Defence Journal, Pakistan
- ^
Insurgents, Terrorists, and Militias: The Warriors of Contemporary Combat
Richard H. Shultz
, Andrea Dew: "
The Martial Races Theory had firm adherents in Pakistan and this factor played a major role in the under-estimation of the Indian Army by Pakistani soldiers as well as civilian decision makers in 1965.
"
- ^
An Analysis The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857?59 by AH Amin
Archived
16 June 2017 at the
Wayback Machine
The army officers of that period were convinced that they were a martial race and the Hindus of Indian Army were cowards. This myth was largely disproved in 1965
- ^
Rais, Rasul Bux (1986).
The Indian Ocean and the superpowers: economic, political and strategic perspectives
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-7099-4241-2
.
- ^
"Pakistan Lost Terribly in 1965 War With India: Pak Historian"
.
NDTV
. 2015.
Archived
from the original on 26 September 2018
. Retrieved
26 September
2018
.
- ^
"Pakistan's Air Power",
Flight International
, issue published 5 May 1984 (page 1208). Can be viewed at
FlightGlobal.com archives
Archived
12 January 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
Retrieved: 22 October 2009
- ^
Fricker, John (1979).
Battle for Pakistan: The Air War of 1965
. I. Allan.
ISBN
978-0-7110-0929-5
.
- ^
"Dr. Ahmad Faruqui"
. Archived from
the original
on 14 December 2004.
- ^
Hassan Abbas (2004).
Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror
. M.E. Sharpe. p.
52
.
ISBN
978-0-7656-1497-1
.
- ^
Ali, Mahmud. (24 December 2003)
South Asia | The rise of Pakistan's army
Archived
19 December 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
. BBC News. Retrieved on 14 April 2011.
- ^
"Embassy of Pakistan"
. Archived from
the original
on 16 May 2006.
- ^
Second opinion: The insidious logic of war Khaled Ahmed's Urdu Press Review
Archived
23 July 2012 at
archive.today
Daily Times 3 June 2002
- ^
Greg Cashman, Leonard C. Robinson (2007).
An introduction to the causes of war: patterns of interstate conflict from World War I to Iraq
. Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
978-0-7425-5510-5
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
Khan, Feroz Hassan (7 November 2012).
"The Reluctant Phase"
.
Eating grass : the making of the Pakistani bomb
. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 45?48 [48].
ISBN
978-0-8047-7601-1
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
21 February
2013
.
- ^
Richard N. Haass "Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy", 1998, Council on Foreign Relations,
ISBN
0-87609-212-1
pp172
- ^
Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age By Peter Paret, 1986, Oxford University Press,
ISBN
0-19-820097-8
pp802
- ^
Rounaq Jahan
(1972).
Pakistan: Failure in National Integration
. Columbia University Press.
ISBN
978-0-231-03625-2
.
Pg 166?167
- ^
Reflections on two military presidents By M.P. Bhandara
25 December 2005, Dawn
- ^
The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971
Yahya Khan as Army Chief-1966-1971
Archived
7 March 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin
- ^
6 September: A day to remember the sacrifices of Pakistan's martyrs
Archived
6 September 2019 at the
Wayback Machine
, Dawn, 6 September 2018
- ^
Taha Siddiqui
Dear Pakistanis, this Defence Day, please stop celebrating hate
Archived
26 December 2019 at the
Wayback Machine
, Al Jazeera, 6 September 2018
- ^
It's Defence Day In Pakistan, But I Don't Know What We're Celebrating
Archived
7 September 2018 at the
Wayback Machine
, Huffington Post, 6 September 2018.
- ^
"Extraordinary Gazette of India, 1965-10-27, Extra Ordinary"
. 27 October 1965.
- ^
"MINISTRY OF HOME AFFAIRS (Public Section) Padma Awards Directory (1954?2017) Year-Wise List"
(PDF)
.
www.mha.gov.in
.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 14 January 2021
. Retrieved
11 July
2021
.
- ^
"The rifle that won the war in 1965 | India News ? Times of India"
.
The Times of India
. 12 October 2015.
Archived
from the original on 24 December 2021
. Retrieved
24 December
2021
.
- ^
"At India's 200-year-old ordnance factories, anxiety, and anticipation | India News ? Times of India"
.
The Times of India
. 16 October 2019.
Archived
from the original on 24 December 2021
. Retrieved
24 December
2021
.
- ^
"Important Milestones"
. Rfi.nic.in. Archived from
the original
on 6 March 2019
. Retrieved
26 February
2022
.
- ^
"Our History | RIFLE FACTORY ISHAPORE | Government of India"
. Archived from
the original
on 22 February 2020
. Retrieved
24 December
2021
.
- ^
Singh, Patwant (19 December 2003).
"Last salute to the lion of 1965"
.
The Indian Express
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
12 October
2018
.
- ^
"Unique Achievements"
. Bengal Sappers Officers Association. Archived from
the original
on 15 September 2008.
- ^
a
b
Cardozo, Major General Ian (retd.) (2003),
Param Vir: Our Heroes in Battle
, New Delhi: Roli Books, pp. 101?103,
ISBN
978-81-7436-262-9
,
archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
, retrieved
16 August
2019
- ^
"Major Raja Aziz Bhatti"
.
Nishan-i-Haider recipients
. Pakistan Army. Archived from
the original
on 3 October 2013
. Retrieved
25 September
2013
.
- ^
Singh, Sarbans (1993).
Battle Honours of the Indian Army 1757?1971
. New Delhi: Vision Books. pp. 242?256.
ISBN
978-81-7094-115-6
.
Archived
from the original on 6 February 2023
. Retrieved
3 November
2011
.
Bibliography
- First & Further reflections on the second Kashmir War
(South Asia series) ? 2 books by Louis Dupree.
- Asghar Khan, Mohammed (1979).
The first round: Indo-Pakistan War, 1965
. Islamic Information Services.
ISBN
978-0-906041-11-6
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Ayub, Muhammad (2005).
An army, its role and rule: a history of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil, 1967?1999
. RoseDog Books.
ISBN
978-0-8059-9594-7
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Bajwa, Farooq (2013),
From Kutch to Tashkent: The Indo-Pakistan War of 1965
, London: C. Hurst & Co,
ISBN
978-1-84904-230-7
- Berindranath, Dewan (1966).
The war with Pakistan: A pictorial narration of the fifty days which rocked the sub-continent
. Asia Press.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Bisht, Rachna (15 August 2015),
1965: Stories from the Second Indo-Pakistan War
, Penguin UK, p. 60,
ISBN
978-93-5214-129-6
- Brines, Russell (1968),
The Indo-Pakistani Conflict
, Pall Mall P.,
ISBN
978-0-269-16232-9
– via archive.org
- Faruquii, Ahmad (2003).
Rethinking the national security of Pakistan: the price of strategic myopia
. Ashgate Publishing.
ISBN
978-0-7546-1497-5
.
- Fricker, John (1979).
Battle for Pakistan: the air war of 1965
. Ian Allan.
ISBN
978-0-7110-0929-5
.
- Gupta, Hari Ram (1967).
India-Pakistan war, 1965
. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Hariyana Prakashan.
ASIN
B0006FFBK8
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Haqqani, Hussain (2005).
Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military
. United Book Press.
ISBN
978-0-87003-214-1
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
12 November
2020
.
- Higgins, David R. (20 January 2016),
M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistan War 1965
, Osprey Publishing, p. 103,
ISBN
978-1-4728-1094-6
- Ismail Siddiqui, Muhammad (1983).
Die to live: A selection of short stories based on the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war
(1 ed.). Wajidalis.
ASIN
B0006EL2OI
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Jamal, Arif (2009),
Shadow War: The Untold Story of Jihad in Kashmir
, Melville House,
ISBN
978-1-933633-59-6
,
archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
, retrieved
31 January
2017
- McGarr, Paul (2013).
The Cold War in South Asia: Britain, the United States and the Indian Subcontinent, 1945?1965
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-1-139-02207-1
.
- Mohan, Jagan; Chopra, Samir (2005) [2005].
The India Pakistan Air War of 1965
(1 ed.). Manohar Publishers.
ISBN
978-81-7304-641-4
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Paul, T. V. (10 March 1994),
Asymmetric Conflicts: War Initiation by Weaker Powers
,
Cambridge University Press
,
ISBN
978-0-521-46621-9
- Praagh, David Van (2003),
The Greater Game: India's Race with Destiny and China
, McGill-Queen's Press ? MQUP,
ISBN
978-0-7735-2639-6
,
archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
, retrieved
22 September
2018
- Pradhan, R. D. (1 January 2007).
1965 War, the Inside Story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan's Diary of India-Pakistan War
. Atlantic Publishers & Dist.
ISBN
978-81-269-0762-5
.
- Praval, Maj K C (2009).
Indian Army after Independence
. Lancer InterConsult, Inc.
ISBN
978-1-935501-10-7
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Singh, Bhupinder (1982).
1965 war, role of tanks in India-Pakistan war
. B.C. Publishers.
ASIN
B0000CQ9GQ
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Singh, Lt. Gen. Harbaksh (1991).
War despatches: Indo-Pak Conflict, 1965
. Lancer InterConsult, Inc.
ISBN
978-81-7062-117-1
.
Archived
from the original on 7 February 2023
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
.
- Tarapore, Arzan. 2019. "Defence without deterrence: India’s strategy in the 1965 war." Security Studies.
Defence without deterrence: India’s strategy in the 1965 war
Archived
16 June 2020 at the
Wayback Machine
External links
|
---|
History
| |
---|
Conflict
| |
---|
Leaders
| |
---|
Highest
awards
| |
---|
|
---|
|
Wars and conflicts
| |
---|
Border skirmishes
| |
---|
Operations
| |
---|
Negotiations
| |
---|
Bombings and massacres
| |
---|
Militant organisations
| |
---|
Observances
| |
---|
Related
| |
---|
|
---|
|
Leadership
| |
---|
Organisation
| Ministry and
Committees/Councils
| |
---|
Commands
| |
---|
Other components
| |
---|
|
---|
Personnel
| |
---|
Operations
| Wars
| |
---|
External
Conflicts
| |
---|
Annexations
| |
---|
Insurgencies
| |
---|
|
---|
Equipment
|
|
---|
Documents
| |
---|
Other topics
| |
---|
|