1256?1335 breakaway khanate of the Mongol Empire
The
Ilkhanate
or
Il-khanate
, ruled by the
Il-Khans
or
Ilkhanids
(
Persian
:
????????
,
romanized
:
?lkh?n?n
), and known to the Mongols as
Hulegu Ulus
(
lit.
'
people or state of Hulegu
'
),
[11]
was a
khanate
founded by Turco-Mongol conquerors
[12]
from the southwestern sector of the
Mongol Empire
. The Ilkhanid realm was officially known as the
Land of Iran
or simply
Iran
.
[13]
[14]
It was established after
Hulegu
, the son of
Tolui
and grandson of
Genghis Khan
, inherited the
West Asian
part of the Mongol Empire after his brother
Mongke Khan
died in 1259.
The Ilkhanate's core territory lies in what is now part of the countries of
Iran
,
Azerbaijan
, and
Turkey
. At its greatest extent, the Ilkhanate also included parts of modern
Iraq
,
Syria
,
Armenia
,
Georgia
,
Afghanistan
,
Turkmenistan
,
Pakistan
, part of modern
Dagestan
, and part of modern
Tajikistan
. Later Ilkhanid rulers, beginning with
Ghazan
in 1295, converted to
Islam
. In the 1330s, the Ilkhanate was ravaged by the
Black Death
. The last ilkhan,
Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan
, died in 1335, after which the Ilkhanate disintegrated.
The Ilkhanid rulers, although of non-Iranian origin, tried to advertise their authority by tying themselves to the Iranian past, and they recruited historians to present the Mongols as heirs to the
Sasanian Empire
(224?651).
[15]
Definition
[
edit
]
According to the historian
Rashid al-Din Hamadani
,
Kublai Khan
granted his brother
Hulegu
the title
ilkhan
after Hulegu's defeat of
Ariq Boke
, another brother. The term
ilkhan
here means "
khan
of the tribe, khan of the
ulus
", and this lesser khanship refers to the initial deference to Mongke Khan and his successors as
Great Khans of the Mongol Empire
. The title ilkhan carried by the descendants of Hulagu and, later, other
Borjigin
princes in Persia, does not appear in the sources until after 1260.
[16]
History
[
edit
]
Origin
[
edit
]
When
Muhammad II of Khwarazm
ordered a contingent of merchants, dispatched by the Mongols, to be killed,
Genghis Khan
declared war on the
Anushtegin dynasty
in 1219.
The Mongols overran the empire
, occupying the major cities and population centers between 1219 and 1221. Iran was ravaged by the Mongol detachment under
Jebe
and
Subutai
, who left the area in ruin.
Transoxiana
also came under Mongol control after the invasion.
[17]
Muhammad II's son
Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu
returned to Iran in c. 1224 after fleeing to India. The rival Turkic states, which were all that remained of his father's empire, quickly declared their allegiance to Jalal. He repulsed the first Mongol attempt to take Central Persia. However, Jalal ad-Din was overwhelmed and crushed by
Chormaqan
's army sent by the Great Khan
Ogedei
in 1231. During the Mongol expedition,
Azerbaijan
and the southern Persian dynasties in
Fars
and
Kerman
voluntarily submitted to the Mongols and agreed to pay tribute.
[18]
Ilkhanid depiction of mounted warriors pursuing enemies, from
Rashid al-Din
's
Jami' al-tawarikh
, early 14th century
To the west,
Hamadan
and the rest of Persia was secured by Chormaqan. The Mongols
invaded Armenia and Georgia
in 1234 or 1236, completing the conquest of the
Kingdom of Georgia
in 1238. They began to attack the western parts of
Bagratid Armenia
, which was under the
Seljuks
, the following year. By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia (including modern-day Azerbaijan), Armenia, Georgia (excluding
Abbasid
Iraq and
Ismaili
strongholds), as well as all of
Afghanistan
and
Kashmir
.
[19]
After the
battle of Kose Da?
in 1243, the Mongols under
Baiju
occupied
Anatolia
, while the
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum
and the
Empire of Trebizond
became vassals of the Mongols.
[20]
In 1236 Ogedei commanded
Greater Khorasan
to be restored and the city of
Herat
repopulated. The Mongol military governors mostly made camp in the
Mughan plain
in what is now Azerbaijan. Realizing the danger posed by the Mongols, the rulers of
Mosul
and the
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
submitted to the Great Khan. Chormaqan divided
Transcaucasia
into three districts based on the Mongol military hierarchy.
[21]
In Georgia, the population was temporarily divided into eight
tumens
.
[22]
In 1244,
Guyuk Khan
stopped raising of revenue from districts in Persia as well and offered tax exemptions to others.
[23]
In accordance with a complaint by the governor
Arghun Aqa
,
Mongke Khan
prohibited
ortogh
-merchants (Mongol-contracted Muslim traders)
[24]
[25]
and nobles from abusing
relay stations
and civilians in 1251.
[26]
He ordered a new census and decreed that each man in the Mongol-ruled
West Asia
must pay in proportion to his property. Persia was divided between four districts under Arghun. Mongke Khan granted the
Kartids
authority over Herat, Jam,
Pushang
(Fushanj),
Ghor
, Khaysar, Firuz-Kuh, Gharjistan, Farah,
Sistan
, Kabul, Tirah, and Afghanistan.
[27]
Hulegu Khan
[
edit
]
Hulagu Khan
, founder of the Ilkhanate, with his Christian queen
Doquz Khatun
A
Mongol
horse archer
of the 13th century
Hulegu Khan
, third son of Tolui, grandson of Genghis Khan, and brother of both Mongke Khan and Kublai Khan, was the first khan of the Ilkhanate. Immediately after his brother Mongke's accession as Great Khan in 1251, Hulagu was appointed as administrator of North China, however in the following year, North China was assigned to Kublai and Hulagu tasked with conquering the
Abbasid Caliphate
. He was given a fifth of the entire Mongol army for the campaign and he took his sons
Abaqa
and Yoshmut along with him. Hulagu also took with him many Chinese scholars and astronomers, from whom the famous Persian astronomer
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
learned about the mode of the
Chinese calculating tables
.
[28]
An observatory was built on a hill of
Maragheh
. Taking over from Baiju in 1255, Hulagu established Mongol rule from Transoxiana to
Syria
. He
destroyed the Nizari Ismaili state
and the Abbasid Caliphate in 1256 and 1258 respectively. In 1258, Hulagu proclaimed himself ilkhan (subordinate khan). After that he advanced as far as Gaza, briefly conquering
Ayyubid Syria
and
Aleppo
in 1260. Mongke's death forced Hulagu to return to Mongolia to attend the
kuriltai
for the next Great Khan. He left a small force of around 10,000 behind in
Palestine
that was defeated at the
battle of Ain Jalut
by the
Mamluks
of
Egypt
.
Due to the suspicious deaths of three
Jochid
princes in Hulagu's service,
Berke
of the
Golden Horde
declared war
on Hulagu in 1262. According to Mamluk historians, Hulagu might have massacred Berke's troops and refused to share his war booty with Berke. Berke sought a joint attack with
Baybars
and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched the young prince
Nogai
to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the
Terek River
, capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River.
In 1262, Hulagu gave
Greater Khorasan
and
Mazandaran
to Abaqa and northern
Azerbaijan
to Yoshmut. Hulagu himself spent his time living as a nomad in southern Azerbaijan and
Armenia
. During his early rule, the Ilkhanate experienced mass revolts by its subjects, with the exception of the
Seljukids
and
Artuqids
in
Anatolia
and
Mardin
. It was not until
Shams al-Din Juvayni
was appointed as vizier after 1262 that things started calming down and a more sustainable administration was implemented.
Hulagu fell ill in February 1265 after several days of banquets and hunting. He died on 8 February and his son Abaqa succeeded him in the summer.
Middle period (1265?1291)
[
edit
]
The successor states of the Mongol Empire, its vassals, and neighbors in the early 1300s.
Upon
Abaqa
's accession, he immediately faced an invasion by
Berke
of the Golden Horde, which ended with Berke's death in
Tiflis
. In 1270, Abaqa defeated an invasion by
Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq
of the
Chagatai Khanate
. Abaqa's brother
Tekuder
sacked
Bukhara
in retaliation. In 1277, the
Mamluks
invaded Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the
Battle of Elbistan
. Stung by the defeat, Abaqa executed the local regent Mu'in-ad-Din Pervane and replaced him with the Mongol prince Qongqortai. In 1281, Abaqa sent Mongke Temur against the Mamluks, but he too was defeated at
Homs
.
Abaqa's death in 1282 triggered a succession struggle between his son
Arghun
, supported by the
Qara'unas
, and his brother Tekuder, supported by the Chinggisid aristocracy. Tekuder was elected khan by the Chinggisids. Tekuder was the first
Muslim
ruler of the Ilkhanate but he made no active attempt to proselytize or convert his realm. However he did try to replace Mongol political traditions with Islamic ones, resulting in a loss of support from the army. Arghun used his religion against him by appealing to non-Muslims for support. When Tekuder realized this, he executed several of Arghun's supporters, and captured Arghun. Tekuder's foster son, Buaq, freed Arghun and overthrew Tekuder. Arghun was confirmed as ilkhan by
Kublai Khan
in February 1286.
During Arghun's reign, he actively sought to combat Muslim influence, and fought against both the Mamluks and the Muslim Mongol emir
Nawruz
in Khorasan. To fund his campaigns, Arghun allowed his viziers Buqa and Sa'd-ud-dawla to centralize expenditures, but this was highly unpopular and caused his former supporters to turn against him. Both viziers were killed and Arghun was murdered in 1291.
Religious shift (1291?1316)
[
edit
]
The Mongol ruler
Ghazan
, studying the
Qur'an
Ilkhanid court scene.
The Free Man's Companion to the Niceties of Poems
, left
frontispiece
, 1341, probably
Isfahan
.
[34]
The Ilkhanate started crumbling under the reign of Arghun's brother,
Gaykhatu
. The majority of Mongols converted to Islam while the Mongol court remained
Buddhist
. Gaykhatu had to buy the support of his followers and as a result, ruined the realm's finances. His vizir Sadr-ud-Din Zanjani tried to bolster the state finances by adopting paper money from the
Yuan dynasty
, which remained largely unsuccessful.
[
tone
]
Gaykhatu also alienated the Mongol old guard with his alleged sexual relations with a boy. Gaykhatu was overthrown in 1295 and replaced with his cousin
Baydu
. Baydu reigned for less than a year before he was overthrown by Gaykhatu's officer,
Ghazan
.
Hulagu's descendants ruled Persia for the next eighty years, tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as a state religion in 1295. However, despite this conversion, the Ilkhanids remained opposed to the Mamluks, who had defeated both Mongol invaders and
Crusaders
. The Ilkhanids launched several invasions of Syria, but were never able to gain and keep significant ground against the
Mamluks
, eventually being forced to give up their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals the
Sultanate of Rum
and the
Armenian kingdom in Cilicia
. This was in large part due to civil war in the Mongol Empire and the hostility of the khanates to the north and east. The
Chagatai Khanate
in
Moghulistan
and the
Golden Horde
threatened the Ilkhanate in the
Caucasus
and Transoxiana, preventing expansion westward. Even under Hulagu's reign, the Ilkhanate was engaged in open warfare in the Caucasus with the Mongols in the Russian steppes. On the other hand, the China-based
Yuan dynasty
was an ally of the Ikhanate and also held nominal suzerainty over the latter (the Emperor being also Great Khan) for many decades.
[35]
Ghazan converted to Islam under influence of
Nawr?z
and made Islam the official state religion. Christian and Jewish subjects lost their equal status and had to pay the
jizya
(minority religion tax). Ghazan gave Buddhists the starker choice of conversion or expulsion and ordered their temples to be destroyed; though he later relaxed this severity.
[36]
After Nawr?z was deposed and killed in 1297, Ghazan made religious intolerance punishable and attempted to restore relations with non-Muslims.
[37]
[38]
Circular piece of silk with Mongol images, Iran or Iraq, early 14th century. Silk, cotton and gold.
[39]
In terms of foreign relations, the Ilkhanids' conversion to Islam had little to no effect on its hostility towards other Muslim states, and conflict with the Mamluks for control of Syria continued. The
Battle of Wadi al-Khaznadar
, the only major victory by the Mongols over the
Mamluk Sultanate
, ended the latter's control over Syria for a few months.
For the most part, Ghazan's policies continued under his brother
Oljaitu
despite suggestions that he might begin to favor
Twelver Shi'ism
after he came under the influence of the theologians
al-Allama al-Hilli
and
al-Bahrani
.
[40]
Oljeitu, who had been
baptised in Christianity
as an infant and had flirted with Buddhism, eventually became a
Hanafi Sunni
, though he still retained some residual shamanism. In 1309?10, he became a Shi'ite Muslim.
[41]
An Armenian scribe in 1304 noted the death of "benevolent and just" Ghazan, who was succeeded by Khar-Banda Oljeitu, "who too, exhibits good will to everyone." A colophon from 1306 reports the conversion of Mongols to Islam and "they coerce everyone into converting to their vain and false hope. They persecute, they molest, and torment," including "insulting the cross and the church".
[38]
Some of the Buddhists who survived Ghazan's assaults made an unsuccessful attempt to bring Oljeitu back into Buddhism, showing they were active in the realm for more than 50 years.
[42]
The conversion of Mongols was initially a fairly superficial affair. The process of establishment of Islam did not happen suddenly. Oljeitu's historian Q?sh?ni records that
Kutlushah
, after losing patience with a dispute between Hanafi and
Shafi'i
Sunnis, expressed his view that Islam should be abandoned and Mongols should return to the ways of Genghis Khan. Q?shani also stated that Oljeitu had reverted for a brief period. As Muslims, Mongols showed a marked preference for
Sufism
, with masters like
Safi-ad-Din Ardabili
often treated with respect and favour.
[43]
Disintegration (1316?1357)
[
edit
]
West Asia
in 1345, ten years after the death of Abu Sa'id. The
Jalayirids
,
Chobanids
,
Muzaffarids
,
Injuids
,
Sarbadars
, and
Kartids
took the Ilkhanate's place as the major powers in
Iran
.
Oljaitu
's son, the last ilkhan,
Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan
, was enthroned in 1316. He was faced with rebellion in 1318 by the Chagatayids and Qara'unas in Khorasan, and an invasion by the Golden Horde at the same time. An Anatolian emir, Irenchin, also rebelled. Irenchin was crushed by
Chupan
of the
Taichiud
in the Battle of Zanjan-Rud on 13 July 1319. Under the influence of Chupan, the Ilkhanate made peace with the Chagatais, who helped them crush the Chagatayid revolt, and the Mamluks. In 1327, Abu-Sai'd replaced Chupan with "Big" Hasan.
Hasan was accused of attempting to assassinate the khan and exiled to Anatolia in 1332. The non-Mongol emirs Sharaf-ud-Din Mahmud-Shah and Ghiyas-ud-Din Muhammad were given unprecedented military authority, which irked the Mongol emirs. In the 1330s, outbreaks of the
Black Death
ravaged the Ilkhanate and both Abu-Sai'd and his sons were killed by 1335 by the plague.
[45]
Ghiyas-ud-Din put a descendant of
Ariq Boke
,
Arpa Ke'un
, on the throne, triggering a succession of short-lived khans until "Little" Hasan took Azerbaijan in 1338. In 1357,
Jani Beg
of the Golden Horde conquered Chupanid-held Tabriz for a year, putting an end to the Ilkhanate remnant.
Franco-Mongol alliance
[
edit
]
The courts of
Western Europe
made many attempts to ally with the Mongols, primarily with the Ilkhanate, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, starting from around the time of the
Seventh Crusade
in the mid-13th century. (Western Europeans were collectively called
'Franks'
- '
'Farang', 'Faranji'
- by Muslims and Asians in the era of the Crusades.) Despite their shared opposition to the
Muslims
, primarily the
Mamluk Sultanate
, no formal alliance ever was concluded.
[47]
Government
[
edit
]
Map of the Ilkhanate in the
Catalan Atlas
(1375), with depiction of the ruler. The Ilkhanate flag appears over many cities:
![](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Flag_of_the_Ilkhanate.svg/15px-Flag_of_the_Ilkhanate.svg.png)
.
[48]
In contrast to the China-based Yuan dynasty, who excluded the native population from gaining control of high offices, the Ilkhanids ruled their realm through a Central Asian-Persian ("Tajik") administration in partnership with Turco-Mongol military officers. Not all of the Persian administrators were Muslims or members of the traditional families that had served the Seljuqs and Khwarazmians (e.g, the
Juvayni family
). For example, the Ilkhanate vizier from 1288 to 1291 was
Sa'ad al-Dawla
, a Jew, while the prominent vizier and historian
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
was a Jewish convert to Islam.
The Ilkhanid rulers, who were keen to increase their autonomy, supported their Persian bureaucrats' promotion of the traditional Iranian idea of kingship. The Persian concept of monarchy over a territorial empire, or more specifically, the "Kingship of the Land of Iran" (
p?dsh?hi-ye Ir?n-zamin
), was easily sold to their Mongol masters by these bureaucrats. A lasting effect of the Mongol conquests was the emergence of the "national state" in Iran during the Ilkhanate era.
[50]
The Ilkhanate Mongols remained nomadic in their way of life until the end of the dynasty. Their nomadic routes covered central
Iraq
, northwest
Iran
,
Azerbaijan
, and
Armenia
. The Mongols administered Iraq, the
Caucasus
, and western and southern Iran directly with the exception of
Georgia
, the
Artuqid
sultan of
Mardin
, and
Kufa
and
Luristan
. The
Qara'unas
Mongols ruled
Khorasan
as an autonomous realm and did not pay taxes.
Herat
's local
Kart dynasty
also remained autonomous. Anatolia was the richest province of the Ilkhanate, supplying a quarter of its revenue while Iraq and
Diyarbakir
together supplied about 35 percent of its revenue.
In 1330, the annexation of
Abkhazia
resulted in the reunification of the Kingdom of Georgia. However, tribute received by the Il-Khans from Georgia sank by about three-quarters between 1336 and 1350 because of wars and famines.
[52]
Legacy
[
edit
]
A ship under the Ilkhanate flag (
), sailing the
Indian Ocean
towards the coast of India under the control of the
Delhi Sultanate
(
), in the
Catalan Atlas
(1375).
[53]
The emergence of the Ilkhanate had an important historical impact in
West Asia
. The establishment of the unified Mongol Empire had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia. The communications between the Ilkhanate and the
Yuan Dynasty
headquartered in China encouraged this development.
[54]
[55]
The dragon clothing of Imperial China was used by the Ilkhanids, the Chinese Huangdi (Emperor) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy influence upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization.
[56]
The Ilkhanate also helped to pave the way for the later
Safavid
dynastic state, and ultimately the modern country of Iran. Hulagu's conquests had also opened Iran to Chinese influence from the east. This, combined with patronage from his successors, would develop Iran's distinctive excellence in architecture. Under the Ilkhans, Iranian historians also moved from writing in Arabic to writing in their native Persian tongue.
[57]
The rudiments of
double-entry accounting
were practiced in the Ilkhanate;
merdiban
was then adopted by the
Ottoman Empire
. These developments were independent from the accounting practices used in Europe.
[58]
This accounting system was adopted primarily as the result of socio-economic necessities created by the agricultural and fiscal reforms of Ghazan Khan in 1295?1304.
Ilkhan as a tribal title in 19th/20th century Iran
[
edit
]
The title ilkhan resurfaced among the
Qashqai
nomads of southern Iran in the 19th century.
Jan Mohammad Khan
started using it in 1818/19, and this was continued by all the following Qashqai leaders. The last Qashqai ilkhan was Nasir Khan, who in 1954 was pushed into exile after his support of
Mohammad Mosaddegh
. When he returned during the
Islamic Revolution
in 1979, he could not regain his previous position and died in 1984 as the last Ilkhan of the Qashqai.
[59]
-
Ilkhanate,
Lampas
with
phoenix
, silk and gold,
Iran
or
Iraq
, 14th century.
-
Ilkhanate,
Lampas
textile, silk and gold; second half of 14th century.
-
1305 letter of the Ilkhanid Mongol
oljaitu
(official square red stamp of the Ilkhanate).
-
Ilkhans
[
edit
]
House of Hulagu (1256?1335; Ilkhanate Mongol kings)
[
edit
]
After the Ilkhanate, the regional states established during the disintegration of the Ilkhanate raised their own candidates as claimants.
House of Ariq Boke
[
edit
]
House of Hulagu (1336?1357)
[
edit
]
House of Hasar
[
edit
]
Claimants from eastern Persia (Khurasan):
- Togha Temur
(c. 1338?1353) (recognized by the
Kartids
1338?1349; by the Jalayirids 1338?1339, 1340?1344; by the Sarbadars 1338?1341, 1344, 1353)
- Luqman (1353?1388) (son of Togha Temur and the protege of
Timur
)
Family tree (House of Hulagu)
[
edit
]
Genealogy of Ulus of Hulegu
[
edit
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Biran, Michal (2016). "Il-Khanate Empire". In Dalziel, N.; MacKenzie, J. M. (eds.).
The Encyclopedia of Empire
. p. 1.
doi
:
10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe362
.
ISBN
978-1-118-44064-3
.
- ^
Maranci, Christina (2008).
The Art of Armenia
.
ISBN
9781932705546
.
- ^
Grousset, Rene (1970).
The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia
. Rutgers University Press. p.
358
.
ISBN
9780813513041
.
- ^
Vaziri, Mostafa (2012). "Buddhism during the Mongol Period in Iran".
Buddhism in Iran: An Anthropological Approach to Traces and Influences
. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 111?131.
doi
:
10.1057/9781137022943_7
.
ISBN
9781137022943
.
- ^
Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006).
"East-West Orientation of Historical Empires"
.
Journal of World-Systems Research
.
12
(2): 223.
ISSN
1076-156X
. Retrieved
13 September
2016
.
- ^
Rein Taagepera
(September 1997).
"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia"
.
International Studies Quarterly
.
41
(3): 496.
doi
:
10.1111/0020-8833.00053
.
JSTOR
2600793
.
- ^
Biran, Michael (2016). Dalziel, N.; MacKenzie, J. M. (eds.). "Il-Khanate Empire".
The Encyclopedia of Empire
: 1?6.
doi
:
10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe362
.
ISBN
9781118455074
.
- ^
Maaike van Berkel, Jeroen Duindam (2018).
Prince, Pen, and Sword: Eurasian Perspectives
. p. 177.
- ^
Danilenko, Nadja (2020). "In Persian, Please! The Translations of al-I??akhr?'s Book of Routes and Realms".
Picturing the Islamicate World: The Story of al-I??akhr?'s Book of Routes and Realms
. Brill. p. 101.
Connecting to
?r?n
as illustrated in the
Sh?hn?ma
, 'land of Iran' rose to the official name for the Ilkhanid realm.
- ^
Ashraf, Ahmad (2006).
"Iranian Identity iii. Medieval Islamic Period"
. In
Yarshater, Ehsan
(ed.).
Encyclopædia Iranica, Volume XIII/5: Iran X. Religions in Iran?Iraq V. Safavid period
. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 507?522.
ISBN
978-0-933273-93-1
.
... the Mongol and Timurid phase, during which the name 'Iran' was used for the dynastic realm and a pre-modern ethno-national history of Iranian dynasties was arranged.
- ^
Danilenko, Nadja (2020). "In Persian, Please! The Translations of al-I??akhr?'s Book of Routes and Realms".
Picturing the Islamicate World: The Story of al-I??akhr?'s Book of Routes and Realms
. Brill. pp. 94?95.
- ^
Peter Jackson
The Mongols and the West
, p.127
- ^
Curtin, Jeremiah (1996).
The Mongols : a history
. Internet Archive. Conshohocken, Pa. : Combined Books.
ISBN
978-0-585-10021-0
.
- ^
Timothy May
Chormaqan
, p.47
- ^
Thomas T. Allsen
Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia
, p.84
- ^
Finlay, George (1851).
The history of Greece : from its conquest by the crusaders to its conquest by the Turks, and of the empire of Trebizond ; 1204-1461
. Getty Research Institute. Edinburgh : Blackwood.
- ^
Aknerts'i, Grigor; Bedrosian, Robert.
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Kalistriat Salia
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E. Endicott-West.
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M. Th. Houtsma
E.J. Brill's first encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913?1936
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Ehsan Yar-Shater
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H. H. Howorth
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Carboni, Stefano (1994).
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David Morgan
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Timothy May (2016).
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Ali Al Oraibi, "Rationalism in the school of Bahrain: a historical perspective", in
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by Lynda Clarke, Global Academic Publishing 2001 p336
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Angus Donal Stewart (2001-01-01).
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. Brill. p. 181.
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Johan Elverskog (2011-06-06).
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Harvard University Press
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David Morgan
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. Routledge. p. 73.
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.
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Continuity and Change in Medieval Persia By Ann K. S. Lambton
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"Despite numerous envoys and the obvious logic of an alliance against mutual enemies, the papacy and the Crusaders never achieved the often-proposed alliance against Islam". Atwood,
Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire
, p. 583, "Western Europe and the Mongol Empire"
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Arjomand 2022
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D. M. Lang, Georgia in the Reign of Giorgi the Brilliant (1314?1346). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1955), pp. 74?91
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Dang, Baohai; Rong, Xinjiang (9 November 2021).
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Gregory G.Guzman ? Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?, The historian 50 (1988), 568?70
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Thomas T.Allsen ? Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia, 211
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Ho, Kai-Lung (2008).
"Central Asiatic Journal"
.
Central Asiatic Journal
.
52
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Francis Robinson, The Mughal Emperors and the Islamic Dynasties of India, Iran and Central Asia, Pages 19 and 36
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Cigdem Solas,
ACCOUNTING SYSTEM PRACTICED IN THE NEAR EAST DURING THE PERIOD 1220?1350
, based on the book
RISALE-I FELEKIYYE
,
The Accounting Historians Journal
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iranicaonline.org
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References
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- Allsen, Thomas
(1994). "The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China". In Denis C. Twitchett;
Herbert Franke
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Revolutions of the End of Time: Apocalypse, Revolution and Reaction in the Persianate World
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14
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External links
[
edit
]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Ilkhanate
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550 BC?AD 224
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