Historical ethnic group from southwestern Europe
The
Iberians
(
Latin
:
Hib?r?
, from
Greek
:
?βηρε?
,
Iberes
) were an ancient people settled in the eastern and southern coasts of the
Iberian peninsula
, at least from the 6th century BC. They are described in
Greek
and
Roman
sources (among others, by
Hecataeus of Miletus
,
Avienius
,
Herodotus
and
Strabo
). Roman sources also use the term
Hispani
to refer to the Iberians.
The term
Iberian
, as used by the ancient authors, had two distinct meanings. One, more general, referred to
all the populations of the Iberian peninsula
without regard to ethnic differences (
Pre-Indo-European
,
Celts
and non-Celtic
Indo-Europeans
). The other, more restricted ethnic sense and the one dealt with in this article, refers to the people living in the eastern and southern coasts of the
Iberian Peninsula
, which by the 6th century BC had absorbed cultural influences from the
Phoenicians
and the
Greeks
.
[1]
This
pre-Indo-European
cultural group spoke the
Iberian language
from the 7th to at least the 1st century BC. The rest of the peninsula, in the northern, central, and northwestern areas, was inhabited by
Vascones
,
Celts
or
Celtiberians
groups and the possibly
Pre-Celtic
or
Proto-Celtic
Indo-European
Lusitanians
,
Vettones
, and
Turdetani
.
Starting in the 5th century BC, Iberian soldiers were frequently
deployed in battles
in Italy, Greece and especially Sicily due to their military qualities.
History
[
edit
]
The Iberian culture developed from the 6th century BC, and perhaps as early as the fifth to the third millennium BC in the eastern and southern coasts of the Iberian peninsula.
[2]
[3]
[4]
The Iberians lived in villages and
oppida
(fortified settlements) and their communities were based on a
tribal
organization. The Iberians in the
Spanish Levant
were more urbanized than their neighbors in the central and northwestern regions of the
Iberian peninsula
. The peoples in the central and northwest regions were mostly speakers of
Celtic
dialects, semi-pastoral and lived in scattered villages, though they also had a few fortified towns like
Numantia
.
[5]
They had a knowledge of
writing
,
metalworking
, including
bronze
, and
agricultural
techniques.
Settlements
[
edit
]
In the centuries preceding Carthaginian and Roman conquest, Iberian settlements grew in
social complexity
, exhibiting evidence of
social stratification
and
urbanization
. This process was probably aided by trading contacts with the
Phoenicians
,
Greeks
, and
Carthaginians
. By the late 5th and early 4th centuries BC a series of important social changes led to the consolidation of an aristocracy and the emergence of a
clientele system.
"This new political system led, among other things, to cities and towns that centered around these leaders, also known as
territorial nucleation
. In this context, the
oppidum
or fortified Iberian town became the centre of reference in the landscape and the political space."
[6]
The settlement of
Castellet de Banyoles
in
Tivissa
was one of the most important ancient Iberian settlements in the north eastern part of the Iberian peninsula that was discovered in 1912. Also, the 'Treasure of Tivissa', a unique collection of silver Iberian votive offerings was found here in 1927.
[7]
Lucentum
was another ancient Iberian settlement, as well as
Castelldefels Castle
.
Mausoleum of Pozo Moro
near the town of
Chinchilla de Monte-Aragon
in
Castile-La Mancha
seems to mark the location of another big settlement.
Sagunto
is the location of an ancient Iberian and later Roman city of Saguntum, where a big fortress was built in the 5th century BC.
Greek colonists
made the first historical reference to the Iberians in the 6th century BC. They defined Iberians as non-Celtic peoples south of the
Ebro
river (Iber). The Greeks also dubbed as "Iberians" another people in the
Caucasus
region, currently known as
Caucasian Iberians
. It is thought that there is no connection between the two peoples.
The Iberians traded extensively with other Mediterranean cultures. Iberian
pottery
and metalwork has been found in
France
,
Italy
, and
North Africa
. The Iberians had extensive contact with
Greek colonists
in the colonies of
Emporion
,
Rhode
, and
Hemeroskopeion
. The Iberians may have adopted some of the
Greeks
' artistic techniques.
Statues
such as the
Lady of Baza
and the
Lady of Elx
are thought to have been made by Iberians relatively well acquainted with Greek
art
.
Thucydides
stated that one of the three original tribes of
Sicily
, the
Sicani
, were of Iberian origin, though "Iberian" at the time could have included what we think of as
Gaul
.
[8]
The Iberians also had contacts with the
Phoenicians
, who had established various colonies in southern
Andalucia
. Their first
colony
on the Iberian Peninsula was founded in 1100 BC and was originally called
Gadir
, later renamed by the Romans as
Gades
(modern
Cadiz
). Other Phoenician colonies in southern Iberia included Malaka (
Malaga
),
Sexi
and
Abdera
.
According to
Arrian
, the Iberians sent emissaries to
Alexander the Great
in 324 BC, along with other embassies of
Carthaginians
,
Italics
and
Gauls
, to request his friendship.
[9]
Second Punic War and Roman conquest
[
edit
]
After the
First Punic war
, the massive war debt suffered by Carthage led them to attempt to expand their control over the Iberian peninsula.
Hamilcar Barca
began this conquest from his base at
Cadiz
by conquering the Tartessian
Guadalquivir
river region, which was rich in silver. After Hamilcar's death, his son-in-law
Hasdrubal the Fair
continued his incursions into Iberia, founding the colony of Qart Hadasht (modern
Cartagena
) and extending his influence all the way to the southern bank of the river
Ebro
. After Hasdrubal's assassination in 221 BC, Hannibal assumed command of the Carthaginian forces and spent two years completing the conquest of the Iberians south of the Ebro.
[10]
In his first campaign, Hannibal defeated the
Olcades
, the
Vaccaei
and the
Carpetani
expanding his control over the river
Tagus
region.
[11]
Hannibal then laid siege to Roman ally of
Saguntum
and this led to the beginning of the
Second Punic War
. The Iberian theater was a key battleground during this war and many Iberian and Celtiberian warriors fought for both Rome and Carthage, though most tribes sided with Carthage.
Rome sent
Gnaeus
and
Publius Cornelius Scipio
to conquer Iberia from Carthage. Gnaeus subsequently defeated the Iberian
Ilergetes
tribe north of the Ebro who were allied with Carthage, conquered the Iberian
oppidum
of
Tarraco
and defeated the Carthaginian fleet. After the arrival of Publius Scipio, Tarraco was fortified and, by 211 BC, the Scipio brothers had overrun the Carthaginian and allied forces south of the Ebro. However, during this campaign, Publius Scipio was killed in battle and Gnaeus died in the retreat. The tide turned with the arrival of
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus
in 210 BC. Scipio attacked and conquered
Carthago Nova
and defeated the army of
Hasdrubal Barca
at the
Battle of Baecula
(209?208). The war dragged on with Carthage sending more reinforcements until the
Battle of Ilipa
(modern
Alcala del Rio
in
Sevilla province
), which was a decisive victory for Publius Scipio Africanus. The Carthaginians retreated to
Gades
, and Publius Scipio gained control over the entire south of the peninsula. After this victory, the Ilergetes and other Iberian tribes revolted and it was only after this revolt that the Romans conquered the rest of the Carthaginian territories in southern Spain.
After the Carthaginian defeat, the Iberian territories were divided into two major provinces,
Hispania Ulterior
and
Hispania Citerior
. In 197 BC, the Iberian tribes revolted once again in the H. Citerior province. After securing these regions, Rome invaded and conquered
Lusitania
and
Celtiberia
. The Romans fought a
long and drawn out campaign
for the conquest of Lusitania. Wars and campaigns in the northern regions of the Iberian peninsula would continue until 16 BC, when the final rebellions of the
Cantabrian Wars
were defeated.
Iberian culture
[
edit
]
Iberian society was divided into different classes, including kings or chieftains (Latin: "regulus"), nobles, priests, artisans and slaves. Iberian aristocracy, often called a "senate" by the ancient sources, met in a council of nobles. Kings or chieftains would maintain their forces through a system of obligation or vassalage that the Romans termed "fides".
[12]
The Iberians adopted wine and olives from the Greeks.
Horse breeding
was particularly important to the Iberians and their nobility. Mining was also very important for their economy, especially the silver mines near Gader and Cartago Nova, the iron mines in the
Ebro
valley, as well as the exploitation of
tin
and
copper
deposits. They produced fine metalwork and high quality iron weapons such as the
falcata
.
Art and religion
[
edit
]
The Iberians produced sculpture in stone and bronze, most of which was much influenced by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and other cultures such as Assyrian, Hittite and Egyptian influences. The styles of Iberian sculpture are divided geographically into Levantine, Central, Southern, and Western groups, of which the Levantine group displays the most Greek influence. Iberian pottery and painting was also distinct and widespread throughout the region. A distinct feature of the culture, the pottery was primarily decorated with geometric forms in red but in some areas (from
Murcia
to the south of
Catalonia
) it also included figurative images.
[6]
The Iberian
polytheistic
religion was influenced by the Greek and Phoenician practices, as it is evident in their sculptures. The man-bull
Bicha of Balazote
(possibly a fertility deity) and various depictions of sphinxes and lions bear a resemblance to
eastern Mediterranean
mythological creatures. The
Lady of Elche
and
Lady of Guardamar
show clear Hellenistic influence. Phoenician and Greek deities like
Tanit
,
Baal
,
Melkart
,
Artemis
,
Demeter
and
Asclepius
were known in the region and worshiped. Currently few native Iberian gods are known, though the oracular healing deity "Betatun" is known from a Latin inscription at Fuertes del Rey.
[13]
There was clearly an important female deity associated with the earth and regeneration as depicted by the
Lady of Baza
and linked with birds, flowers and wheat.
[13]
The horse was also an important religious figure and an important sanctuary dedicated to Horses has been found in Mula (
Murcia
). There are many depictions of a "horse taming god" or "lord of the horses" (
despotes hippon
). The female goddess
Ataegina
is also widely attested in the inscriptions.
Iberians performed their rites in the open and also maintained sanctuaries in holy places like groves, springs and caves.
[14]
Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of a priestly class and
Silius Italicus
mentions priests in the region of
Tartessos
at a temple of
Melqart
. Evidence from pottery reveals some information about Iberian myth and ritual. Common themes are a celebratory ritual dance described by Strabo [c.f. 3.3.7.] and seen in a relief from Fuerte del Rey known as the "Bastetania dance" and the confrontation between the deceased and a wolf figure.
[15]
Ritual sacrifice of animals was also common.
In Iberian
eschatology
, "death was seen as the starting point for a journey symbolised by a crossing of the sea, the land or even the sky. Supernatural and mythical beings, such as the Sphinx or the wolf, and sometimes Divinity itself, accompanied and guided the deceased on this journey".
[6]
The Iberians incinerated their dead and placed their ashes in ceremonial urns, the remains were then placed in stone tombs.
Warfare
[
edit
]
Iberian soldiers were widely employed by Carthage and Rome as mercenaries and auxiliary troops. A large portion of Carthaginian forces during the
Punic wars
was made up of Iberians and
Celtiberians
. Iberian warfare was
endemic
and based on intertribal raiding and pillaging. In set piece battle, Iberians were known to regularly charge and retreat, throwing javelins and shouting at their opponents without actually committing to full contact combat. This sort of fighting was termed
concursare
by the Romans.
[12]
The Iberians were particularly fond of
ambushes
and
guerrilla tactics
.
Ancient sources mention two major types of Iberian infantry,
scutati
and
caetrati
.
Scutati
were heavily armored and carried large Italic style
scutum shields
. The
caetrati
carried the caetra, a small Iberian
buckler
.
[12]
Iberian armaments included the famed
Gladius Hispaniensis
, a curved sword called the
falcata
, straight swords, spears, javelins and an all iron spear called the
Soliferrum
. Iberian horsemen were a key element of Iberian forces as well as Carthaginian armies. Spain was rich with excellent wild horses and Iberian cavalry was some of the best in the ancient Mediterranean.
Iberian tribes
[
edit
]
Iberians dwelt along eastern and southern coastal regions of the
Iberian Peninsula
, that corresponds to the northwestern shores of the
Mediterranean Sea
(see the map), roughly in today's
Catalonia
, Eastern, Northeastern and Northern
Aragon
,
Valencian Community
,
Murcia Region
, Eastern
Andalucia
, and the
Balearic Islands
(in
Spain
), and also in today's
Roussillon
and parts of
Languedoc
(in
France
).
The peninsula has this name because ancient
Greeks
,
Romans
and other mediterranean peoples first contacted with peoples (tribes or tribal confederacies) that were Iberians in the ethnic and linguistic sense, although the majority of the
Iberian Peninsula
's peoples, that dwelt in the Northern, Central and Western regions (the majority of the peninsula's area), were not Iberians themselves in the ethnic and linguistic sense (they could only be considered Iberians in the geographical sense, i.e. they dwelt in the Iberian Peninsula).
The Iberian tribes or tribal confederacies were:
- Andosini - in the mountains of East
Pyrenees
southern slopes, in the high
Segre river
basin, area of modern
Andorra
.
- Ausetani
- in the
Osona
region (old
County of Osona
), in the middle
Ter river
basin.
Ausa
(today's
Vic
) was their main centre.
- Bastetani
/
Bastitani
/
Bastuli
- The biggest iberian tribal confederation in area, they dwelt in a territory that included large areas of the mediterranean coast and the
Sierra Nevada
, in what are today parts of the modern provinces of
Murcia
,
Albacete
,
Jaen
,
Almeria
,
Granada
and
Malaga
.
Basti
(today's
Baza
) was their main centre.
- Bergistani
/
Bergusii
- in the high
Llobregat river
basin, roughly in today's
Barcelona province
.
Berga
was their main centre. North of the
Lacetani
.
- Castellani
- in the high
Ter river
basin, East
Pyrenees
southern slopes. North of the
Ausetani
.
- Cessetani
/
Cossetani
- in the
Tarraco
region (roughly in today's central and east
Tarragona province
), in the mediterranean coastal region.
Kese
(
Tarraco
in Roman times, that would become the
Hispania Tarraconensis
capital), was their main centre.
- Ceretani
/
Cerretani
- in
Cerretana
(today's
Cerdanya
/
Cerdana
) and other East
Pyrenees
mountains southern slopes, also in the high
Segre
and
Noguera
rivers basins (tributaries of the
Iberus
-
Ebro
river), in the east part of
Ribagorca
. Libyca or Julia Libyca (today's
Llivia
) was their main centre. North of the
Ilergetes
and the
Bergistani
.
- Contestani
- South of the
Sucro
(
Xuquer
) river and north of the
Thader
(
Segura
) river, in an area that today is roughly part of the
Alicante
/
Alacant
,
Valencia
,
Murcia
and
Albacete
provinces. A tribal confederation. East of the
Bastetani
. Centres included Saetabi (modern
Xativa
) and
la Bastida de les Alcusses
.
- Edetani
- North of the
Sucro
(
Xuquer
/
Jucar
) river and south of the
Millars river
, roughly in today's
Valencia province
. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations.
Edeta
(Roman times
Lauro
, today's
Lliria
), to the northwest of
Valencia
, was their main centre,
Arse
(
Saguntum
in Roman times, today's
Sagunto
/
Sagunt
) was also in their territory. North of the
Contestani
and the
Bastetani
and south of the
Ilercavones
.
- Elisyces
/
Helisyces
- a tribe that dwelt in the region of
Narbo
(
Narbonne
) and modern northern
Roussillon
. May have been either Iberian or
Ligurian
or a Ligurian-Iberian tribe.
- Ilercavones
- in the low
Iberus
(
Ebro
) river basin to the
Millars river
along the mediterranean coast and to the inland towards the
Sierra de Gudar
, in
Ilercavonia
. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations.
Hibera
(Roman time Dertusa or Dertosa, modern time
Tortosa
) was their main centre. North of the
Edetani
, south of the
Ilergetes
, east of the
Sedetani
and west of the
Cessetani
.
- Ilergetes
/
Ilergetae
- in the plains area of the middle and low
Segre
and
Cinca
rivers towards the
Iberus
(
Ebro
) river margins. One of the biggest iberian tribes or tribal confederations.
Iltrida
(
Ilerda
in Roman times, today's
Lerida
/
Lleida
) was their main centre.
- Indigetes
/
Indigetae
- in the low
Ter river
basin, East
Pyrenees
southern slopes, they occupied the far north east area of the
Iberian Peninsula
known as
Hispania Tarraconensis
, in the gulf of
Empodrae
(
Empuries
) and Rhoda (Roses), stretching up into the
Pyrenees
though the regions of
Emporda
,
Selva
and perhaps as far as
Girones
, in what is roughly today's
Girona Province
. Indika/Indiga or Undika was their main centre (identified with the ruins of
Ullastret
). A confederation was formed by four tribes.
- Lacetani
- in the middle
Llobregat river
basin and surrounding hills. Northwest of the
Laietani
.
- Laietani
- in the low
Llobregat river
basin, along a part of the mediterranean coast roughly in what is today a part of the
Barcelona province
and
Barcelona
city. Laieta (Barcino in Roman times and
Barcelona
in modern times) was their main centre.
- Oretani
- In the high
Baetis
(
Guadalquivir
) river valley, eastern
Marianus Mons
(
Sierra Morena
) and southern area of today's
La Mancha
. They could have been an Iberian tribe, a
Celtic
one, or a mixed Celtic and Iberian tribe or tribal confederacy (and hence related to the
Celtiberians
). The Mantesani/Mentesani/Mantasani of today's
La Mancha
and the
Germani
(of Oretania) in eastern
Marianus Mons
(
Sierra Morena
) and west Jabalon river valley, sometimes are included in the Oretani but it is not certain if they were Oretani tribes.
- Sedetani
- south of the
Iberus
(
Ebro
) river and west of the
Guadalope river
, roughly in the middle basin of the
Iberus
(
Ebro
). Salduie (Roman time Salduba and
Caesaraugusta
and modern time
Zaragoza
) was in their territory. May have been more closely related to the
Edetani
. West of the
Ilercavones
.
- Sordones
- in the
Roussillon
territory (
Pyrenees Orientales
Department,
France
),
Ruscino
(today's Chateau-Roussillon near
Perpignan
) was their main centre.
- Vescetani/Oscenses - In today's northern
Aragon
, east of
Gallego river
, in
Sobrarbe
, in and around
Bolskan
, later
Osca
(
Huesca
), and high
Cinca River
valley,
Spain
. They could also be related to the
Vascones
and therefore be related to the
Aquitani
speaking the
Aquitanian language
.
- Unknown named tribe or tribes in the
Balearic Islands
(formed by the
Pityusic Islands
and
Gymnesian islands
), may have been Iberians.
Iberian language
[
edit
]
The Iberian language, like the rest of the
paleohispanic languages
, became
extinct
by the 1st to 2nd centuries AD, after being gradually replaced by
Latin
. The Iberian language remains an unclassified non-Indo European language. A 1978 study claimed many similarities between Iberian and the
Messapic language
.
[16]
Iberian languages also share some elements with the
Basque language
.
[17]
Links have also been found with the
Etruscan language
and
Minoan
Linear A
.
[18]
There are different theories about the origin of the Iberian language. According to the
Catalan
theory, the Iberian language originated in northern
Catalonia
, from where it expanded north and south.
[19]
Iberian scripts
[
edit
]
The Iberians use three different scripts to represent the
Iberian language
.
Northeastern Iberian script
and
southeastern Iberian script
share a common distinctive typological characteristic, also present in other
paleohispanic scripts
: they present signs with syllabic value for the
occlusives
and signs with monofonematic value for the rest of
consonants
and
vowels
. From a
writing systems
point of view, they are neither
alphabets
nor
syllabaries
, they are mixed scripts that normally are identified as
semi-syllabaries
. About this common origin, there is no agreement between researchers: for some this origin is only linked to the
Phoenician alphabet
while for others the
Greek alphabet
had participated too.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
An English-language survey is Richard J. Harrison,
Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians and Greeks
(Thames & Hudson), 1988.
- ^
"Iberians ? MSN Encarta"
. Archived from
the original
on 2009-10-30.
- ^
Iberians ? Encyclopedia.com
- ^
"Spain: Historical Setting ? Library of Congress Country Study ? Iberia"
. Archived from
the original
on 2020-04-06
. Retrieved
2008-02-29
.
- ^
J. S. Richardson, Hispaniae; Spain and the Development of Roman Imperialism, 218-82 BC, page 16.
- ^
a
b
c
Rueda, Carmen; Sanchez, Alberto; Amate, Pilar (2018-11-30).
"The history of the Iberians"
.
blog.europeana.eu
.
Europeana
? CC BY-SA
. Retrieved
2018-11-30
.
- ^
Castellet de Banyoles (Tivissa)
Archived
2016-03-08 at the
Wayback Machine
Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya
- ^
"Sicilian Peoples: The Sicanians"
. Best of Sicily. 7 October 2007.
- ^
Arrian
,
The Anabasis of Alexander
, VII.XV. "As he was marching back to
Babylon
, he was met by embassies from the
Libyans
, who congratulated him and crowned him as conqueror of the kingdom of Asia. From Italy also came
Bruttians
,
Lucanians
, and
Tyrrhenians
as envoys, for the same purpose. The
Carthaginians
are said to have sent an embassy to him at this time; and it is also asserted that envoys came to request his friendship from the
Ethiopians
, the
Scythians
of Europe, the
Gauls
, and Iberians ? nations whose names were heard and their accoutrements seen then for the first time by
Greeks
and
Macedonians
. They are also said to have entrusted to Alexander the duty of settling their disputes with each other. Then indeed it was especially evident both to himself and to those about him that he was lord of all the land and sea."
- ^
Dodge, Theodore Ayrault,
Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C
, p.
143
[
permanent dead link
]
- ^
Hoyos, D.
Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247-183 BC
, p.89-91, 2003
- ^
a
b
c
Rafael Trevino Martinez, Rome's Enemies (4) : Spanish Armies 218-19 BC (Men at Arms Series, 180)
- ^
a
b
Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe
- ^
La religiosidad entre los iberos,
http://www.artehistoria.com/v2/contextos/5758.htm
Archived
2017-09-02 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Lisbeth Bredholt Christensen, et al. The Handbook of Religions in Ancient Europe, page
- ^
Anderson, James M. (1978).
"On the decipherment of ancient Iberian"
.
Neophilologus
.
62
: 80?85.
doi
:
10.1007/BF01514311
.
S2CID
162251382
.
- ^
Jose Ignacio Hualde, Joseba A. Lakarra, Towards a History of the Basque Language, page 55.
- ^
Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al., Prehistoric Iberia: Genetics, Anthropology, and Linguistics, 171.
- ^
Velaza, Javier (2006)
Lengua vs. cultura material: el (viejo) problema de la lengua indigena de Cataluna, Actes de la III Reunio Internacional d'Arqueologia de Calafell (Calafell, 25 to 27 November 2004), Arqueo Mediterrania 9, pp. 273-280
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Beltran, Miguel (1996):
Los iberos en Aragon
, Zaragoza.
- Ruiz, Arturo; Molinos, Manuel (1993):
Los iberos
, Barcelona.
- Sanmarti, Joan; Santacana, Joan (2005):
Els ibers del nord
, Barcelona.
- Sanmarti, Joan (2005):
≪La conformacion del mundo iberico septentrional≫
,
Palaeohispanica
5, pp. 333?358.
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