Domesticated equine
The
horse
(
Equus ferus caballus
)
[2]
[3]
is a
domesticated
,
one-toed
,
hoofed mammal
. It belongs to the taxonomic family
Equidae
and is one of two
extant
subspecies
of
Equus ferus
. The horse has
evolved
over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, close to
Eohippus
, into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began domesticating horses around 4000
BCE
, and their
domestication
is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BCE. Horses in the subspecies
caballus
are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as
feral horses
. These feral populations are not true
wild horses
, which are horses that never have been domesticated and historically linked to the megafauna category of species. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from
anatomy
to life stages, size,
colors
,
markings
,
breeds
,
locomotion
, and behavior.
Horses are
adapted to run
, allowing them to quickly escape predators, and possess a good
sense of balance
and a strong
fight-or-flight response
. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down, with younger horses tending to sleep significantly more than adults.
[4]
Female horses, called
mares
, carry their young for approximately 11 months and a young horse, called a
foal
, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under a
saddle
or in a
harness
between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.
Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as
draft horses
and some
ponies
, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "
warmbloods
", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, developed for many different uses.
Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits as well as in working activities such as
police work
,
agriculture
, entertainment, and
therapy
. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of
riding
and
driving
techniques developed, using many different styles of
equipment
and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including
meat
,
milk
,
hide
,
hair
, bone, and
pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares
. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water, and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as
veterinarians
and
farriers
.
Biology
Lifespan and life stages
Depending on breed,
management
and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years.
[7]
Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.
[8]
The oldest verifiable record was "
Old Billy
", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.
[7]
In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in
Guinness World Records
as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007 at age 56.
[9]
Regardless of a horse or pony's actual birth date, for most competition purposes a year is added to its age each January 1 of each year in the Northern Hemisphere
[7]
[10]
and each August 1 in the Southern Hemisphere.
[11]
The exception is in
endurance riding
, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's actual calendar age.
[12]
The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:
- Foal
- A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a
suckling
, and a foal that has been weaned is called a
weanling
.
[13]
Most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects.
[14]
- Yearling
- A horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.
[15]
- Colt
- A male horse under the age of four.
[16]
A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.
[17]
- Filly
- A female horse under the age of four.
[13]
- Mare
- A female horse four years old and older.
[18]
- Stallion
- A non-castrated male horse four years old and older.
[19]
The term "horse" is sometimes used colloquially to refer specifically to a stallion.
[20]
- Gelding
- A
castrated
male horse of any age.
[13]
In
horse racing
, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles,
Thoroughbred
horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.
[21]
However, Australian Thoroughbred racing defines colts and fillies as less than four years old.
[22]
Size and measurement
The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the
withers
, where the neck meets the
back
.
[23]
This point is used because it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down in relation to the body of the horse.
In English-speaking countries, the height of horses is often stated in units of
hands
and inches: one hand is equal to 4 inches (101.6 mm). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a
point
, then the number of additional inches, and ending with the abbreviation "h" or "hh" (for "hands high"). Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands plus 2 inches, for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.
[24]
The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by
nutrition
. Light-riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,210 lb).
[25]
Larger-riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,320 lb).
[26]
Heavy or
draft horses
are usually at least 16 hands (64 inches, 163 cm) high and can be as tall as 18 hands (72 inches, 183 cm) high. They can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,540 to 2,200 lb).
[27]
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a
Shire horse
named
Mammoth
, who was born in 1848. He stood
21.2
1
?
4
hands (86.25 inches, 219 cm) high and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms (3,360 lb).
[28]
The record holder for the smallest horse ever is
Thumbelina
, a fully mature
miniature horse
affected by
dwarfism
. She was 43 centimetres; 4.1 hands (17 in) tall and weighed 26 kg (57 lb).
[29]
[30]
Ponies
Ponies
are
taxonomically
the same animals as horses. The distinction between a horse and pony is commonly drawn on the basis of height, especially for competition purposes. However, height alone is not dispositive; the difference between horses and ponies may also include aspects of
phenotype
, including conformation and temperament.
The traditional standard for height of a horse or a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) a pony,
[31]
: 12
but there are many exceptions to the traditional standard. In Australia, ponies are considered to be those under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm).
[32]
For competition in the
Western
division of the
United States Equestrian Federation
, the cutoff is 14.1 hands (57 inches, 145 cm).
[33]
The
International Federation for Equestrian Sports
, the world governing body for horse sport, uses
metric
measurements and defines a pony as being any horse measuring less than 148 centimetres (58.27 in) at the withers without shoes, which is just over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), and
149 centimetres (58.66 in; 14.
2
+
1
⁄
2
hands), with shoes.
[34]
Height is not the sole criterion for distinguishing horses from ponies.
Breed registries
for horses that typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm) consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.
[35]
Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm), but are still considered to be ponies.
[36]
Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.
[31]
: 11?12
[
failed verification
]
Small size, by itself, is not an exclusive determinant. For example, the
Shetland pony
which averages 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm), is considered a pony.
[31]
: 12
Conversely, breeds such as the
Falabella
and other
miniature horses
, which can be no taller than 76 centimetres; 7.2 hands (30 in), are classified by their
registries
as very small horses, not ponies.
[37]
Genetics
Horses have 64
chromosomes
.
[38]
The
horse genome
was
sequenced
in 2007. It contains 2.7 billion DNA
base pairs
,
[39]
which is larger than the
dog genome
, but smaller than the
human genome
or the
bovine genome
.
[40]
The map is available to researchers.
[41]
Colors and markings
Horses exhibit a diverse array of
coat colors
and distinctive
markings
, described by a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.
[42]
Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white
markings
,
[43]
which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.
[44]
Many
genes
that create horse coat colors and patterns have been identified. Current genetic tests can identify at least 13 different
alleles
influencing coat color,
[45]
and research continues to discover new genes linked to specific traits. The basic coat colors of
chestnut
and
black
are determined by the
gene
controlled by the
Melanocortin 1 receptor
,
[46]
also known as the "extension gene" or "red factor",
[45]
as its recessive form is "red" (chestnut) and its dominant form is black.
[47]
Additional
genes
control suppression of black color to
point coloration
that results in a
bay
, spotting patterns such as
pinto
or
leopard
,
dilution genes
such as
palomino
or
dun
, as well as
greying
, and all the other factors that create the many possible coat colors found in horses.
[45]
Horses that have a white coat color are often mislabeled; a horse that looks "white" is usually a middle-aged or older
gray
. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, but usually keep black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white
markings
). The only horses properly called
white
are born with a predominantly white hair coat and pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.
[47]
Different and unrelated
genetic
factors can produce white coat colors in horses, including several different alleles of
dominant white
and the
sabino-1 gene
.
[48]
However, there are no "
albino
" horses, defined as having both pink skin and red eyes.
[49]
Reproduction and development
Gestation
lasts approximately 340 days, with an average range 320?370 days,
[50]
[51]
and usually results in one
foal
; twins are rare.
[52]
Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.
[53]
Foals are usually born in the spring. The
estrous cycle
of a mare occurs roughly every 19?22 days and occurs from early spring into autumn. Most mares enter an
anestrus
period during the winter and thus do not cycle in this period.
[54]
Foals are generally
weaned
from their mothers between four and six months of age.
[55]
Horses, particularly colts, are sometimes physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.
[31]
: 129
Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Larger horses have larger bones; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to form
bone tissue
, but the
epiphyseal plates
are larger and take longer to convert from
cartilage
to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.
[56]
Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and
trained
to be ridden between the ages of two and four.
[57]
Although
Thoroughbred
race horses
are put on the track as young as the age of two in some countries,
[58]
horses specifically bred for sports such as
dressage
are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.
[59]
For
endurance riding
competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (five years) old.
[12]
Anatomy
Skeletal system
The horse skeleton averages 205 bones.
[60]
A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human is the lack of a
collarbone
?the horse's
forelimbs
are attached to the
spinal column
by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the
shoulder blade
to the torso. The horse's four legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the
carpal bones
that correspond to the human
wrist
. Similarly, the
hock
contains bones equivalent to those in the human
ankle
and
heel
. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the
fetlock
(incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal
sesamoid bones
between the
cannon
bones (a single equivalent to the human
metacarpal
or
metatarsal bones
) and the
proximal phalanges
, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone,
tendons
,
ligaments
,
cartilage
, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the
hoof
.
[61]
Hooves
The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".
[62]
The
horse hoof
begins with the
distal phalanges
, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by
cartilage
and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the
laminae
. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of
keratin
, the same material as a human
fingernail
.
[63]
The result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),
[64]
travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.
[65]
For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have
horseshoes
placed on their feet by a professional
farrier
. The hoof continually grows, and in most domesticated horses needs to be trimmed (and
horseshoes
reset, if used) every five to eight weeks,
[66]
though the hooves of horses in the wild wear down and regrow at a rate suitable for their terrain.
Teeth
Horses are adapted to
grazing
. In an adult horse, there are 12
incisors
at the front of the mouth, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the
premolars
and
molars
, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of
canine teeth
called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small
vestigial
teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the
bit
. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the gums, or "bars" of the horse's mouth when the horse is
bridled
.
[67]
An estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life and are worn down by grazing. Therefore, the incisors show changes as the horse ages; they develop a distinct wear pattern, changes in tooth shape, and changes in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. This allows a very rough estimate of a horse's age, although diet and veterinary care can also affect the rate of tooth wear.
[7]
Digestion
Horses are
herbivores
with a digestive system adapted to a
forage
diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 to 45 litres (8.4 to 9.9 imp gal; 10 to 12 US gal) of
water
. Horses are not
ruminants
, having only one stomach, like humans. But unlike humans, they can digest
cellulose
, a major component of grass, through the process of
hindgut fermentation
. Cellulose fermentation by symbiotic bacteria and other microbes occurs in the
cecum
and the
large intestine
. Horses cannot
vomit
, so digestion problems can quickly cause
colic
, a leading cause of death.
[68]
Although horses do not have a
gallbladder
, they tolerate high amounts of fat in their diet.
[69]
[70]
Senses
The horses' senses are based on their status as
prey animals
, where they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.
[71]
They have the largest eyes of any land mammal,
[72]
and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.
[73]
This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being
binocular vision
and the remaining 285°
monocular vision
.
[72]
Horses have excellent day and
night vision
, but they have two-color, or
dichromatic vision
; their
color vision
is somewhat like
red-green color blindness
in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear as a shade of green.
[74]
Their
sense of smell
, while much better than that of humans, is not quite as good as that of a dog. It is believed to play a key role in the social interactions of horses as well as detecting other key scents in the environment. Horses have two olfactory centers. The first system is in the nostrils and nasal cavity, which analyze a wide range of odors. The second, located under the nasal cavity, are the
vomeronasal organs
, also called Jacobson's organs. These have a separate nerve pathway to the brain and appear to primarily analyze
pheromones
.
[75]
A horse's hearing is good,
[71]
and the
pinna
of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.
[76]
Noise impacts the behavior of horses and certain kinds of noise may contribute to stress: a 2013 study in the UK indicated that stabled horses were calmest in a quiet setting, or if listening to country or classical music, but displayed signs of nervousness when listening to jazz or rock music. This study also recommended keeping music under a volume of 21
decibels
.
[77]
An Australian study found that stabled racehorses listening to talk radio had a higher rate of gastric ulcers than horses listening to music, and racehorses stabled where a radio was played had a higher overall rate of ulceration than horses stabled where there was no radio playing.
[78]
Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed
proprioception
?the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times.
[79]
A horse's
sense of touch
is well-developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.
[80]
Horses are able to sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.
[81]
Horses have an advanced sense of taste, which allows them to sort through
fodder
and choose what they would most like to eat,
[82]
and their
prehensile
lips can easily sort even small grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants, however, there are exceptions; horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.
[83]
Movement
-
Walk
5?8 km/h (3.1?5.0 mph)
-
Trot
8?13 km/h (5.0?8.1 mph)
-
Pace
8?13 km/h (5.0?8.1 mph)
-
Canter
16?27 km/h (9.9?16.8 mph)
-
Gallop
40?48 km/h (25?30 mph), record:
70.76 km/h (43.97 mph)
All horses move naturally with four basic
gaits
:
[84]
- the four-beat
walk
, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph);
- the two-beat
trot or jog
at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 11.8 mph) (faster for
harness racing
horses);
- the
canter or lope
, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph);
- the
gallop
, which averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),
[85]
but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 70.76 kilometres per hour (43.97 mph).
[86]
Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat
pace
, instead of the trot.
[87]
There also are several four-beat '
ambling
' gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral
rack
,
running walk
, and
tolt
as well as the diagonal
fox trot
.
[88]
Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as
gaited horses
.
[89]
These horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.
[90]
Behavior
Horses are prey animals with a strong
fight-or-flight response
. Their first reaction to a threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is impossible or if their young are threatened.
[91]
They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.
[92]
Horses are
herd animals
, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant individual, usually a mare. They are also social creatures that are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual
grooming
, and
body language
. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.
[93]
However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop
stable vices
, an assortment of bad habits, mostly
stereotypies
of psychological origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.
[94]
Intelligence and learning
Studies have indicated that horses perform a number of
cognitive
tasks on a daily basis, meeting mental challenges that include
food procurement
and identification of individuals within a
social system
. They also have good
spatial discrimination
abilities.
[95]
They are naturally curious and apt to investigate things they have not seen before.
[96]
Studies have assessed equine intelligence in areas such as
problem solving
, speed of learning, and
memory
. Horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to use more advanced cognitive abilities that involve
categorization
and
concept learning
. They can learn using
habituation
,
desensitization
,
classical conditioning
, and
operant conditioning
, and positive and negative
reinforcement
.
[95]
One study has indicated that horses can differentiate between "more or less" if the quantity involved is less than four.
[97]
Domesticated horses may face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that prevent
instinctive
behavior whilst also learning tasks that are not natural.
[95]
Horses are animals of
habit
that respond well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. One trainer believes that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that best fits with an individual animal's natural inclinations.
[98]
Temperament
Horses are
mammals
. As such, they are
warm-blooded
, or
endothermic
creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded, or
poikilothermic
animals. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not
body temperature
. For example, the "
hot-bloods
", such as many
race horses
, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,
[99]
while the "cold-bloods", such as most
draft breeds
, are quieter and calmer.
[100]
Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",
[101]
with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".
[102]
"Hot blooded" breeds include "
oriental horses
" such as the
Akhal-Teke
,
Arabian horse
,
Barb
, and now-extinct
Turkoman horse
, as well as the
Thoroughbred
, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds.
[99]
Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed.
[103]
They tend to be physically refined?thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.
[104]
The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light
cavalry
horses.
[105]
[106]
Muscular, heavy
draft horses
are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.
[100]
They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".
[107]
Well-known draft breeds include the
Belgian
and the
Clydesdale
.
[107]
Some, like the
Percheron
, are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.
[108]
Others, such as the
Shire
, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.
[109]
The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.
[110]
"
Warmblood
" breeds, such as the
Trakehner
or
Hanoverian
, developed when European carriage and
war horses
were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.
[111]
Certain
pony
breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.
[112]
Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".
[101]
Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of
sport horse
breeds that are used for competition in
dressage
and
show jumping
.
[113]
Strictly speaking, the term "
warm blood
" refers to any
cross
between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.
[114]
Examples include breeds such as the
Irish Draught
or the
Cleveland Bay
. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the
Morgan horse
.
[103]
Sleep patterns
Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "
stay apparatus
" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.
[115]
Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its
instincts
are to keep a constant eye out for danger.
[116]
Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours,
[116]
mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.
[117]
The average sleep time of a domestic horse is said to be 2.9 hours per day.
[118]
Horses must lie down to reach
REM sleep
. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.
[116]
However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.
[119]
This condition differs from
narcolepsy
, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.
[120]
Taxonomy and evolution
The horse
adapted
to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an
ecosystem
where other large grazing animals, especially
ruminants
, could not.
[121]
Horses and other equids are
odd-toed ungulates
of the
order
Perissodactyla
, a group of mammals dominant during the
Tertiary
period. In the past, this order contained 14
families
, but only three?
Equidae
(the horse and related species),
Tapiridae
(the
tapir
), and
Rhinocerotidae
(the
rhinoceroses
)?have survived to the present day.
[122]
The earliest known member of the family Equidae was the
Hyracotherium
, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the
Eocene
period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.
[123]
The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the
Mesohippus
, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.
[124]
Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small
vestigial
bones on the leg below the knee,
[125]
known informally as splint bones.
[126]
Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.
[125]
By about 5 million years ago, the modern
Equus
had evolved.
[127]
Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the
steppes
of Eurasia and the
Great Plains
of North America.
By about 15,000 years ago,
Equus ferus
was a widespread
holarctic
species. Horse bones from this time period, the late
Pleistocene
, are found in Europe, Eurasia,
Beringia
, and North America.
[128]
Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America.
[129]
[130]
[131]
The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival.
[132]
Another theory points to
climate change
, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a
steppe
ecosystem gave way to shrub
tundra
, which was covered with unpalatable plants.
[133]
Wild species surviving into modern times
A truly
wild horse
is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever successfully domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually
feral horses
, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.
[134]
Only two wild subspecies, the
tarpan
and the
Przewalski's horse
, survived into recorded history and only the latter survives today.
The
Przewalski's horse
(
Equus ferus przewalskii
), named after the Russian explorer
Nikolai Przhevalsky
, is a rare Asian animal. It is also known as the Mongolian wild horse;
Mongolian
people know it as the
taki
, and the
Kyrgyz people
call it a
kirtag
. The subspecies was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild by the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.
[135]
Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.
[136]
[137]
There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.
Their status as a truly wild horse was called into question when domestic horses of the 5,000-year-old
Botai culture
of Central Asia were found more closely related to Przewalski's horses than to
E. f. caballus
. The study raised the possibility that modern Przewalski's horses could be the feral descendants of the domestic Botai horses. However, it remains possible that both the Botai horses and the modern Przewalski's horses descend separately from the same ancient wild Przewalski's horse population.
[138]
[139]
[140]
The
tarpan
or European wild horse (
Equus ferus ferus
) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became
extinct
in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.
[141]
Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the tarpan,
[141]
[142]
[143]
which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.
Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be
relict
populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the
Riwoche horse
of Tibet was proposed as such,
[137]
but testing did not reveal genetic differences from domesticated horses.
[144]
Similarly, the
Sorraia
of Portugal was proposed as a direct descendant of the
Tarpan
on the basis of shared characteristics,
[145]
[146]
but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds, and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.
[145]
[147]
Other modern equids
Besides the horse, there are six other species of
genus
Equus
in the Equidae
family
. These are the ass or
donkey
,
Equus asinus
; the
mountain zebra
,
Equus zebra
;
plains zebra
,
Equus quagga
;
Grevy's zebra
,
Equus grevyi
; the
kiang
,
Equus kiang
; and the
onager
,
Equus hemionus
.
[148]
Horses can
crossbreed
with other members of their genus. The most common
hybrid
is the
mule
, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a
mare
. A related hybrid, a
hinny
, is a cross between a stallion and a "jenny" (female donkey).
[149]
Other hybrids include the
zorse
, a cross between a zebra and a horse.
[150]
With rare exceptions, most hybrids are
sterile
and cannot reproduce.
[151]
Domestication and history
Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BCE. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on
palaeological
and archaeological discoveries; the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.
The earliest archaeological evidence for the
domestication of the horse
comes from sites in
Ukraine
and
Kazakhstan
, dating to approximately 4000?3500 BCE.
[152]
[153]
[154]
By 3000 BCE, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BCE there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.
[155]
The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the
Sintashta
and
Petrovka
cultures
c.
2100 BCE.
[156]
A 2021 genetic study suggested that most modern domestic horses descend from the lower
Volga-Don region
.
Ancient horse genomes
indicate that these populations influenced almost all local populations as they expanded rapidly throughout
Eurasia
, beginning about 4,200 years ago. It also shows that certain adaptations were strongly selected due to
riding
, and that
equestrian material culture
, including
Sintashta
spoke-wheeled
chariots
spread with the horse itself.
[157]
[158]
Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present-day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse,
[159]
[160]
while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.
[147]
[161]
[162]
This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (
Y-chromosome
) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (
mitochondrial DNA
). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability,
[159]
[160]
but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.
[147]
[161]
[162]
There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds.
[147]
[161]
[162]
[163]
Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.
[164]
In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BCE.
[165]
Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypotheses were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.
[110]
Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of
selective breeding
after domestication.
[166]
However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.
Feral populations
Feral
horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.
[134]
Many populations of
feral horses
exist throughout the world.
[167]
[168]
Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,
[169]
as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.
[170]
There are also
semi-feral
horses in many parts of the world, such as
Dartmoor
and the
New Forest
in the UK, where the animals are all privately owned but live for significant amounts of time in "wild" conditions on undeveloped, often public, lands. Owners of such animals often pay a fee for grazing rights.
[171]
[172]
Breeds
The concept of
purebred
bloodstock and a controlled, written
breed registry
has come to be particularly significant and important in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are incorrectly or inaccurately called "thoroughbreds".
Thoroughbred
is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined
pedigree
recognized by a breed registry.
[173]
Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as
conformation
, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and
artificial selection
methods. Horses have been
selectively bred
since their
domestication
. An early example of people who practiced selective
horse breeding
were the
Bedouin
, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their
Arabian horses
and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.
[174]
These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an
oral tradition
.
[175]
In the 14th century,
Carthusian
monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the
Andalusian horse
.
[176]
Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.
[177]
Thus, a powerful but refined breed such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses with an aptitude for
dressage
.
[177]
Heavy draft horses were developed out of a need to perform demanding
farm
work and pull heavy wagons.
[178]
Other horse breeds had been developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.
[179]
Some breeds developed through centuries of crossing other breeds, while others descended from a single
foundation sire
, or other limited or restricted foundation bloodstock. One of the earliest formal registries was
General Stud Book
for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the
foundation bloodstock
for the breed.
[180]
There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.
[181]
Interaction with humans
Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The
Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone.
[182]
The
American Horse Council
estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.
[183]
In a 2004 "poll" conducted by
Animal Planet
, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.
[184]
Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;
[185]
to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a
saddle
on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a
bridle
or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.
[186]
Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,
[187]
and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.
[188]
Many horses are also
driven
, which requires a
harness
, bridle, and some type of
vehicle
.
[189]
Sport
Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as
dressage
,
eventing
, and
show jumping
, have origins in
military training
, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as
rodeo
, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working
ranches
and
stations
. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques.
[185]
Horse racing
of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.
[185]
Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include
show jumping
,
dressage
, three-day
eventing
,
competitive driving
,
endurance riding
,
gymkhana
,
rodeos
, and
fox hunting
.
[190]
Horse shows
, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as
"In-hand"
classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.
[191]
Sports such as
polo
do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions?be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.
[192]
Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include
jousting
, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,
[193]
and
buzkashi
, a team game played throughout
Central Asia
, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.
[192]
Horse racing
is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing;
steeplechasing
, i.e. racing over jumps; and
harness racing
, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a
sulky
.
[194]
A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the
gambling
associated with it.
[195]
Work
A mounted police officer in Poland
There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example,
mounted police
horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control.
[196]
Cattle
ranches
still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.
[197]
Search and rescue
organizations in some countries depend upon
mounted
teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.
[198]
Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in
wilderness areas
. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles.
Law enforcement officers
such as
park rangers
or
game wardens
may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.
[199]
Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million
working animals
in Africa alone.
[200]
Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of
draft animals
such as horses.
[201]
[202]
Logging with horses can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.
[203]
Warfare
Horses have been used in warfare for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 and 3000 BCE,
[204]
and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the
Bronze Age
.
[205]
[206]
Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the
Janjaweed
militias in the
War in Darfur
.
[207]
Entertainment and culture
Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action
historical reenactments
of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.
[208]
Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.
[209]
Public exhibitions are another example, such as the
Budweiser Clydesdales
, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of
draft horses
that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.
[210]
Horses are frequently used in television, films and literature. They are sometimes featured as a major character in films about particular animals, but also used as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories.
[211]
Both live horses and
iconic
images of horses are used in
advertising
to promote a variety of products.
[212]
The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in
heraldry
, in a variety of poses and equipment.
[213]
The
mythologies
of many cultures, including
Greco-Roman
,
Hindu
,
Islamic
, and
Germanic
, include references to both normal horses and those with wings or additional limbs, and multiple myths also call upon the horse to draw the chariots of the Moon and Sun.
[214]
The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the
Chinese zodiac
related to the
Chinese calendar
.
[215]
Horses serve as the inspiration for many modern automobile names and logos, including the
Ford Pinto
,
Ford Bronco
,
Ford Mustang
,
Hyundai Equus
,
Hyundai Pony
,
Mitsubishi Starion
,
Subaru Brumby
,
Mitsubishi Colt
/
Dodge Colt
,
Pinzgauer
,
Steyr-Puch Haflinger
,
Pegaso
,
Porsche
,
Rolls-Royce Camargue
,
Ferrari
,
Carlsson
,
Kamaz
,
Corre La Licorne
,
Iran Khodro
,
Eicher
, and
Baojun
.
[216]
[217]
[218]
Indian
TVS Motor Company
also uses a horse on their motorcycles & scooters.
Therapeutic use
People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from an association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.
[219]
The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the
Paralympic Games
and recognition of
para-equestrian
events by the
International Federation for Equestrian Sports
(FEI).
[220]
Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that use equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.
[221]
Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential
psychotherapy
that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.
[222]
There are also experimental programs using horses in
prison
settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce
recidivism
when they leave.
[223]
Products
Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the
slaughter
of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.
Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the
Mongols
, who let it ferment to produce
kumis
.
[224]
Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other
nomadic
tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.
[224]
The drug
Premarin
is a mixture of
estrogens
extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (
pre
gnant
mar
es' ur
in
e), and was previously a widely used drug for
hormone replacement therapy
.
[225]
The tail hair of horses can be used for making
bows
for
string instruments
such as the
violin
,
viola
,
cello
, and
double bass
.
[226]
Horse meat
has been used as food for humans and
carnivorous animals
throughout the ages. Approximately 5 million horses are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.
[227]
It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is
taboo
in some cultures,
[228]
and a subject of political controversy in others.
[229]
Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves,
jackets
,
[230]
baseballs
,
[231]
and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce
animal glue
.
[232]
Horse bones can be used to make implements.
[233]
Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse
tibia
is sharpened into a probe called a
spinto
, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.
[234]
In Asia, the
saba
is a horsehide vessel used in the production of
kumis
.
[235]
Care
Horses are
grazing
animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality
forage
from
hay
or
pasture
.
[236]
They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.
[237]
Sometimes, concentrated feed such as
grain
is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.
[238]
When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.
[239]
Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 38 to 45 litres (10 to 12 US gal) per day.
[240]
Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and
precipitation
, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate
stable
.
[241]
Horses require routine
hoof
care from a
farrier
, as well as
vaccinations
to protect against various diseases, and
dental
examinations from a
veterinarian
or a specialized equine dentist.
[242]
If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.
[243]
When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy
fences
to be safely contained.
[244]
Regular
grooming
is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.
[245]
Climate change
As of 2019, there are around 17 million horses in the world. Healthy body temperature for adult horses is in the range between 37.5 and 38.5 °C (99.5 and 101.3 °F), which they can maintain while ambient temperatures are between 5 and 25 °C (41 and 77 °F). However, strenuous exercise increases core body temperature by 1 °C (1.8 °F)/minute, as 80% of the energy used by equine muscles is released as heat. Along with
bovines
and
primates
, equines are the only animal group which use
sweating
as their primary method of thermoregulation: in fact, it can account for up to 70% of their heat loss, and horses sweat three times more than humans while undergoing comparably strenuous physical activity. Unlike humans, this sweat is created not by
eccrine glands
but by
apocrine glands
.
[247]
In hot conditions, horses during three hours of moderate-intersity exercise can loss 30 to 35 L of water and 100g of sodium, 198 g of choloride and 45 g of potassium.
[247]
In another difference from humans, their sweat is
hypertonic
, and contains a protein called
latherin
,
[248]
which enables it to spread across their body easier, and to
foam
, rather than to drip off. These adaptations are partly to compensate for their lower body surface-to-mass ratio, which makes it more difficult for horses to passively radiate heat. Yet, prolonged exposure to very hot and/or humid conditions will lead to consequences such as
anhidrosis
,
heat stroke
, or brain damage, potentially culminating in death if not addressed with measures like cold water applications. Additionally, around 10% of incidents associated with horse transport have been attributed to heat stress. These issues are expected to worsen in the future.
[246]
African horse sickness
(AHS) is a viral illness with a mortality close to 90% in horses, and 50% in
mules
. A midge,
Culicoides imicola
, is the primary vector of AHS, and its spread is expected to benefit from climate change.
[249]
The spillover of
Hendra virus
from its
flying fox
hosts to horses is also likely to increase, as future warming would expand the hosts' geographic range. It has been estimated that under the "moderate" and high
climate change scenarios
,
RCP4.5
and RCP8.5, the number of threatened horses would increase by 110,000 and 165,000, respectively, or by 175 and 260%.
[250]
See also
References
- ^
Linnaeus, Carolus
(1758).
Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis
. Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 73.
Archived
from the original on 2018-10-12
. Retrieved
2008-09-08
.
- ^
a
b
Grubb, P.
(2005).
"Order Perissodactyla"
. In
Wilson, D.E.
; Reeder, D.M (eds.).
Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference
(3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 630?631.
ISBN
978-0-8018-8221-0
.
OCLC
62265494
.
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. New York: Fireside.
ISBN
0-671-66068-3
.
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. Topeka, KS: Yale University Press. pp. 400?401.
ISBN
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.
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. London: Dorling Kindersley.
ISBN
1-56458-614-6
.
OCLC
29670649
.
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Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agricultural Series
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ISBN
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.
OCLC
21977751
.
- Giffin, James M.; Tom Gore (1998).
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ISBN
0-87605-606-0
.
OCLC
37245445
.
- Harris, Susan E. (1993).
Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement
. New York: Howell Book House.
ISBN
0-87605-955-8
.
OCLC
25873158
.
- McBane, Susan (1997).
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds
. Edison, NJ: Wellfleet Press.
ISBN
0-7858-0604-0
.
OCLC
244110821
.
- Miller, Robert M. (1999).
Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind
. Neenah, WI: Russell Meerdink Company Ltd.
ISBN
0-929346-65-3
.
OCLC
42389612
.
Archived
from the original on 2023-03-20
. Retrieved
2020-09-28
.
- Price, Steven D.; Spector, David L.; Rentsch, Gail; Burn, Barbara B., eds. (1998).
The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated
(Revised ed.). New York: Fireside.
ISBN
0-684-83995-4
.
- Sponenberg, D. Phillip (1996).
"The Proliferation of Horse Breeds"
.
Horses Through Time
(First ed.). Boulder, CO: Roberts Rinehart Publishers.
ISBN
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.
OCLC
36179575
.
- Whitaker, Julie; Whitelaw, Ian (2007).
The Horse: A Miscellany of Equine Knowledge
. New York: St. Martin's Press.
ISBN
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.
Further reading
External links