The
history of North Macedonia
encompasses the history of the territory of the modern state of
North Macedonia
.
Prehistory
[
edit
]
Ancient period
[
edit
]
Paeonians and other tribes
[
edit
]
In antiquity, most of the territory that is now
North Macedonia
was included in the kingdom of
Paeonia
, which was populated by the Paeonians, a people of
Thracian
origins,
[1]
but also parts of ancient
Illyria
,
[2]
[3]
Ancient Macedonians
populated the area in the south, living among many other tribes and
Dardania
,
[4]
inhabited by various
Illyrian
peoples,
[5]
[6]
and
Lyncestis
and
Pelagonia
populated by the ancient Greek
Molossian
[7]
tribes. None of these had fixed boundaries; they were sometimes subject to the Kings of
Macedon
, and sometimes broke away.
Persian rule
[
edit
]
In the late 6th century BC, the
Achaemenid Persians
under
Darius the Great
conquered the
Paeonians
, incorporating what is today North Macedonia within their vast territories.
[8]
[9]
[10]
Following the loss in the
Second Persian invasion of Greece
in 479 BC, the Persians eventually withdrew from their European territories, including from what is today North Macedonia.
Macedon and Rome
[
edit
]
In 336 BC
Philip II of Macedon
fully annexed
Upper Macedonia
, including its northern part and southern Paeonia, which both now lie within North Macedonia.
[11]
Philip's son
Alexander the Great
conquered most of the remainder of the region, incorporating it in his empire, with the exclusion of
Dardania
.
The Romans
included most of the Republic in their province of
Macedonia
, but the northernmost parts (Dardania) lay in
Moesia
; by the time of
Diocletian
, they had been subdivided, and the Republic was split between
Macedonia Salutaris
and
Moesia prima
.
[12]
Little is known about the Slavs before the 5th century CE.
Medieval period
[
edit
]
Migration Period
[
edit
]
At this period the area divided from the
Jire?ek Line
was populated from people of
Thraco-Roman
or
Illyro-Roman
origins, as well from
Hellenized
citizens of the
Byzantine Empire
and
Byzantine Greeks
. The ancient languages of the local
Thraco-Illyrian
people had already gone extinct before the arrival of the Slavs, and their cultural influence was highly reduced due to the repeated barbaric invasions on the Balkans during the early
Middle Ages
, accompanied by persistent
hellenization
,
romanisation
and later
slavicisation
.
South Slavic
tribes settled in the territory of present-day North Macedonia in the 6th century. The Slavic settlements were referred to by Byzantine Greek historians as "Sclavenes". The Sclavenes participated in several assaults against the
Byzantine Empire
? alone or aided by
Bulgars
or
Avars
. Around 680 AD the
Bulgar
group, led by khan
Kuber
(who belonged to the same
Dulo
clan as the Danubian Bulgarian Khan
Asparukh
), settled in the
Pelagonian plain
, and launched campaigns to the region of
Thessaloniki
.
In the late 7th century
Justinian II
organized massive expeditions against the Sklaviniai of the Greek peninsula, in which he reportedly captured over 110,000 Slavs and transferred them to
Cappadocia
. By the time of
Constans II
(who also organized campaigns against the Slavs), the significant number of the Slavs of Macedonia were captured and transferred to central
Asia Minor
where they were forced to recognize the authority of the Byzantine emperor and serve in its ranks.
Contested between various realms
[
edit
]
Use of the name "Sklavines" as a nation on its own was discontinued in Byzantine records after circa 836 as those Slavs in the Macedonia region became a population in the
First Bulgarian Empire
. Originally two distinct peoples,
Sclavenes
and
Bulgars
, the Bulgars assimilated the Slavic language/identity whilst maintaining the Bulgarian demonym and name of the empire. Slavic influence in the region strengthened along with the rise of this state, which incorporated the entire region to its domain in AD 837.
Saints Cyril and Methodius
,
Byzantine Greeks
born in
Thessaloniki
, were the creators of the first Slavic
Glagolitic alphabet
and
Old Church Slavonic
language. They were also apostles-Christianizators of the Slavic world. Their cultural heritage was acquired and developed in medieval Bulgaria, where after 885 the region of
Ohrid
became a significant ecclesiastical center. In conjunction with another disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius,
Saint Naum
, he created a flourishing Bulgarian cultural center around Ohrid, where over 3,000 pupils were taught in the Glagolitic and
Cyrillic script
in what is now called
Ohrid Literary School
.
At the end of the 10th century, much of what is now
North Macedonia
became the political and cultural center of the
First Bulgarian Empire
under Tsar
Samuel
; while the Byzantine emperor
Basil II
came to rule the eastern part of the empire (what is now Bulgaria), including the then capital
Preslav
, in 972. A new capital was established at
Ohrid
, which also became the seat of the
Bulgarian Patriarchate
. From then on, the Bulgarian model became an integral part of wider Slavic culture as a whole. After several decades of almost incessant fighting, Bulgaria came under Byzantine rule in 1018. The whole of North Macedonia was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire as
Theme of Bulgaria
[13]
and the Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced in rank to an archbishopric, the
Archbishopric of Ohrid
.
[14]
Dobromir Chrysos
rebelled against the emperor and after an unsuccessful imperial campaign in autumn 1197, the emperor sued for peace and recognized Dobromir-Chrysus' rights to lands between the Strymon and Vardar, including Strumica and the fortress of Prosek.
[15]
In the 13th and 14th centuries, Byzantine control was punctuated by periods of
Bulgarian
and
Serbian
rule. For example,
Konstantin Asen
? a former nobleman from Skopje ? ruled as tsar of Bulgaria from 1257 to 1277. Later,
Skopje
became a capital of the
Serbian Empire
under
Stefan Du?an
. After the dissolution of the empire, the area became a domain of independent local Serbian rulers from the
Mrnjav?evi?
and
Draga?
houses. The domain of the Mrnjav?evi? house included western parts of present-day North Macedonia and domains of the Draga? house included eastern parts. The capital of the state of Mrnjav?evi? house was
Prilep
. There are only two known rulers from the Mrnjav?evi? house ? king
Vuka?in Mrnjav?evi?
and his son, king
Marko
. King Marko became a vassal of the
Ottoman Empire
and later died in the
Battle of Rovine
.
During the period in the 12th, 13th and early 14th century, parts of modern western
North Macedonia
were under the rule of the
Albanian Noble Gropa family
, which ruled territories between
Ohrid
and
Debar
. The city of
Debar
and some other territories after the ending rule of
Gropa Noble family
, were ruled by the Albanian
Royal House of Kastrioti
which ruled the
Principality of Kastrioti
during the end of the 14th century and the first half of the 15th century. After the death of the
Albanian Prince
Gjon Kastrioti
in 1437, many parts of his domains were conquered by the Ottoman Empire and shortly after this, during the 15th century were again restored into the Albanian rule of
League of Lezhe
led by
Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg
. During this period, western territories of modern North Macedonia became battleground between the Albanian and Ottoman armies. Some of the battles that took place in the territory of
Macedonia
were the
Battle of Polog
,
Battle of Mokra
,
Battle of Ohrid
,
Battle of Otonete
,
Battle of Oranik
and many others.
Skanderbeg's Campaign
into
Macedonia
also took place. With the death of
Skanderbeg
on 17 January 1468 the
Albanian Resistance
began to fall. After the death of
Skanderbeg
the
Albanian League
was led by
Leke Dukagjini
, but it did not have the same success as before and the last Albanian strongholds were conquered in 1479 in the
Siege of Shkoder
.
Ottoman period
[
edit
]
Conquered by the Ottoman army at the end of the 14th century,
[16]
the region remained a part of the
Ottoman Empire
for over 500 years, as part of the province or
Eyalet
of
Rumelia
.
[17]
During this in the second half of the 15th century the
Albanian
Leader of the
League of Lezhe
,
Skanderbeg
was able to occupy places in modern western
North Macedonia
that were under Ottoman rule like the then well known city of
Ohrid
(
Albanian
Oher) in the
Battle of Ohrid
.
[18]
[19]
Tetovo
(
Battle of Polog
) and many other places. The Albanian forces under
Skanderbeg
penetrated deep into modern North Macedonia in the
Battle of Mokra
. But this did not last long and the places were again occupied by the
Ottomans
.
Rumelia
(
Turkish
:
Rumeli
) means "Land of the Romans" in
Turkish
, referring to the lands conquered by the
Ottoman Turks
from the
Byzantine Empire
.
[20]
). Over the centuries Rumelia Eyalet was reduced in size through administrative reforms, until by the nineteenth century it consisted of a region of central Albania and north-western part of the current state of North Macedonia with its capital at Manastir or present day
Bitola
.
[21]
Rumelia Eyalet was abolished in 1867 and the territory of North Macedonia subsequently became part of the provinces of
Manastir Vilayet
,
Kosovo Vilayet
and
Salonica Vilayet
until the end of Ottoman rule in 1912.
During the period of Ottoman rule the region gained a substantial
Turkish
minority, especially in the religious sense of Muslim; some of those Muslims became so through conversions. During the Ottoman rule,
Skopje
and Monastir (
Bitola
) were capitals of separate Ottoman provinces (eyalets). The valley of the river
Vardar
, which was later to become the central area of North Macedonia, was ruled by the
Ottoman Empire
prior to the
First Balkan War
of 1912, with the exception of the brief period in 1878 when it was liberated from Ottoman rule after the
Russo-Turkish War (1877?78)
, becoming part of
Bulgaria
. In 1903, a short-lived
Kru?evo Republic
was proclaimed in the south-western part of present-day North Macedonia by the rebels of the
Ilinden?Preobrazhenie Uprising
. Most of the ethnographers and travellers during
Ottoman
rule classified Slavic speaking people in Macedonia as
Bulgarians
. Examples include the 17th century traveller
Evliya Celebi
in his
Seyahatname
: Book of Travels
to the Ottoman census of
Hilmi Pasha
in 1904 and later. However, they also remarked that the language spoken in Macedonia had somewhat of a distinctive character ? often described as a "Western Bulgarian dialect" as other Bulgarian dialects in modern western Bulgaria. Evidence also exists that certain Macedonian Slavs, particularly those in the northern regions, considered themselves as
Serbs
, on the other hand the intention to
join Greece
predominated in southern Macedonia where it was supported by substantial part of the Slavic-speaking population too. Although references are made referring to Slavs in Macedonia being identified as Bulgarians, some scholars suggest that ethnicity in medieval times was more fluid than what we see it to be today, an understanding derived from nineteenth century nationalistic ideals of a homogeneous nation-state.
[22]
[23]
During the period of
Bulgarian National Revival
(1762?1878), many Bulgarians from Vardar Macedonia supported the struggle for creation of Bulgarian cultural educational and religious institutions, including the
Bulgarian Exarchate
. The subsequent
Macedonian Struggle
(1893?1908) remained inconclusive.
Karađorđevi? period (1912?1944)
[
edit
]
Balkan Wars and World War I
[
edit
]
The region was captured by the
Kingdom of Serbia
during
First Balkan War
of 1912 and was subsequently annexed to Serbia under the
Karađorđevi? dynasty
in the post-war peace treaties except
Strumica
region was part of Bulgaria between 1912 and 1919. It had no administrative autonomy and was called
South Serbia
(
Ju?na Srbija
) or "
Old Serbia
" (
Stara Srbija
). It was
occupied
by the
Kingdom of Bulgaria
between 1915 and 1918. After the First World War, the Kingdom of Serbia joined the newly formed
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
.
-
Skopje
after being captured by Albanian revolutionaries who defeated the Ottoman forces holding the city in August 1912.
-
The Kingdom of Serbia in 1914, on the eve of World War I
-
Map showing Yugoslavia in 1919 in the
aftermath of World War I
before the treaties of
Neuilly
,
Trianon
and
Rapallo
[24]
-
Provinces of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1920?1922
Royal Yugoslav period
[
edit
]
After World War I (1914?1918) the Slavs in Serbian Macedonia ("
Vardar Macedonia
") were regarded as southern Serbs and the language they spoke a southern Serbian dialect. The Bulgarian, Greek and Romanian schools were closed, the Bulgarian priests and all non-Serbian teachers were expelled. The policy of
Serbianization
in the 1920s and 1930s clashed with
pro-Bulgarian
sentiment stirred by
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
(IMRO) detachments infiltrating from Bulgaria, whereas local communists favoured the path of self-determination.
In 1925,
D. J. Footman
, the British vice consul at
Skopje
, addressed a lengthy report for the
Foreign Office
. He wrote that "the majority of the inhabitants of
Southern Serbia
are
Orthodox Christian
Macedonians,
ethnologically
more akin to the Bulgarians than to the Serbs. He also pointed to the existence of the tendency to seek an independent Macedonia with
Salonica
as its capital."
[25]
On 6 January 1929, king
Alexander I Karađorđevi?
committed a coup d'etat and installed the so-called
6 January Dictatorship
, abolishing the
Vidovdan Constitution
and renaming the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes to the
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
. It was divided into provinces called
banovinas
. The territory of
Vardar Banovina
had
Skopje
as its capital and it included what eventually became modern North Macedonia (plus some lands north of it that are now part of Serbia and Kosovo). Alexander's dictatorship effectively ruined parliamentary democracy, and after growing popular resentment against the king's autocratic rule, he was
assassinated in 1934 in France
by the
Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization
(IMRO).
World War II
[
edit
]
During World War II, the Vardar Banovina was occupied between 1941 and 1944 by
Italian-ruled Albania
, which annexed the Albanian-populated western regions, and pro-German
Bulgaria
, which occupied the remainder. The occupying powers persecuted those inhabitants of the province who opposed the regime; this prompted some of them to join the Communist resistance movement of
Josip Broz Tito
. However, the Bulgarian army was well received by most of the population when it entered Macedonia
[26]
and it was able to recruit from the local population, which formed as much as 40% to 60% of the soldiers in certain battalions.
Socialist Yugoslav period
[
edit
]
1944?1949
[
edit
]
Following World War II, Yugoslavia was reconstituted as a federal state under the leadership of Tito's
Yugoslav Communist Party
. When the former Vardar province was established in 1944, most of its territory was transferred into a separate republic while the northernmost parts of the province remained with Serbia. In 1946, the new republic was granted federal status as an autonomous "People's Republic of Macedonia" within the new
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
. In the 1963 Constitution of Yugoslavia it was slightly renamed, to bring it in line with the other Yugoslav republics, as the
Socialist Republic of Macedonia
.
Greece was concerned by the initiatives of the Yugoslav government, as they were seen as a pretext for future territorial claims against the Greek region of
Macedonia
, which formed the bulk of
historical Macedonia
. The Yugoslav authorities also promoted the development of the
Macedonians
' ethnic identity and language. The
Macedonian language
was codified in 1944 (Keith 2003), from the Slavic dialect spoken around
Veles
. This further angered both Greece and Bulgaria, because of the possible territorial claims of the new states to the Greek and Bulgarian parts of the historic region of Macedonia received after the
Balkan Wars
.
During the
Greek Civil War
(1944?1949), many Macedonians (regardless of ethnicity) participated in the ELAS resistance movement organized by the
Communist Party of Greece
.
ELAS
and Yugoslavia were on good terms until 1949, when they split due to Tito's lack of allegiance to
Joseph Stalin
(cf.
Cominform
). After the end of the war, the ELAS fighters who took refuge in southern Yugoslavia and Bulgaria were not all permitted by Greece to return: only those who considered themselves Greeks were allowed, whereas those who considered themselves
Bulgarian or Macedonian Slavs
were barred. These events also contributed to the bad state of Yugoslav-Greek relations in the Macedonia region.
1950?1990
[
edit
]
| This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
March 2022
)
|
Independence
[
edit
]
1990s
[
edit
]
In 1990, the form of
government
peacefully changed from
socialist state
to
parliamentary democracy
. The first multi-party elections were held on 11 and 25 November and 9 December 1990.
[27]
After the collective presidency led by
Vladimir Mitkov
[
bg
;
mk
;
sr
;
uk
]
[28]
was dissolved,
Kiro Gligorov
became the first democratically elected
president
of the Republic of Macedonia on 31 January 1991.
[29]
On 16 April 1991, the parliament adopted a
constitutional amendment
removing "
Socialist
" from the official name of the country, and on 7 June of the same year, the new name, "Republic of Macedonia", was officially established.
On 8 September 1991, the country held an
independence referendum
where 95.26% voted for independence from Yugoslavia, under the name of the
Republic of Macedonia
. The question of the referendum was formulated as "Would you support independent Macedonia with the right to enter future union of sovereign states of Yugoslavia?" (Macedonian: Дали сте за самосто?на Македони?а со право да стапи во иден со?уз на суверени држави на ?угослави?а?). On 25 September 1991 the Declaration of Independence was formally adopted by the
Macedonian Parliament
making the Republic of Macedonia an independent country ? although in Macedonia
independence day
is still celebrated as the day of the referendum 8 September. A new
Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia
was adopted on 17 November 1991.
Following the
breakup of Yugoslavia
, the position of
ethnic Albanians
was uncertain in the early years of the new Macedonian republic. Various Albanian political parties emerged, of which the
Party for Democratic Prosperity
(PDP) was the largest and most prominent. The PDP called for the improvement of the status of
Albanians in North Macedonia
, such as extended education rights and
Albanian language
usage, constitutional changes, release of political prisoners, proportional voting system and an end to discrimination. Discontent with the lack of constitutional recognition of collective rights for Albanians resulted in PDP leader Nevzat Halili declaring his party would regard the constitution as invalid and move toward seeking autonomy, declaring a
Republic of Ilirida
in 1992 and again in 2014. The proposal has been declared unconstitutional by the
Macedonian government
.
Bulgaria
was the first country to recognize the new Macedonian state under its constitutional name. However, international recognition of the new country was delayed by Greece's objection to the use of what it considered a Hellenic name and national symbols, as well as controversial clauses in the Republic's constitution, a controversy known as the
Macedonia naming dispute
. To compromise, the country was admitted to the United Nations under the provisional name of "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" on 8 April 1993.
[30]
Greece was still dissatisfied and it imposed a trade blockade in February 1994. The sanctions were lifted in September 1995 after Macedonia changed its flag and aspects of its constitution that were perceived as granting it the right to intervene in the affairs of other countries. The two neighbours immediately went ahead with normalizing their relations, but the state's name remains a source of local and international controversy. The usage of each name remains controversial to supporters of the other.
After the state was admitted to the United Nations under the temporary reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", other international organisations adopted the same convention. More than half of the UN's member states have recognized the country as the Republic of Macedonia, including the United States of America while the rest use the temporary reference "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" or have not established any diplomatic relations with the country.
In 1999, the
Kosovo War
led to 340,000 Albanian refugees from Kosovo fleeing into the Republic of Macedonia, greatly disrupting normal life in the region and threatening to upset the balance between
Macedonians
and
Albanians
. Refugee camps were set up in the country. Athens did not interfere with the Republic's affairs when
NATO
forces moved to and from the region ahead a possible invasion of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
.
Thessaloniki
was the main depot for humanitarian aid to the region. The Republic of Macedonia did not become involved in the conflict.
In end the war, Yugoslav president
Slobodan Milo?evi?
reached an agreement with NATO which allowed refugees to return under UN protection. However, the war increased tensions, and relations between Macedonians and the Albanian minority became strained. On the positive side, Athens and Ankara presented a united front of 'non-involvement'. In Greece, there was a strong reaction against NATO and the United States.
2000s
[
edit
]
In the spring of 2001, ethnic Albanian insurgents calling themselves the
National Liberation Army
(some of whom were former members of the
Kosovo Liberation Army
)
took up arms
in the north and northwest of the Republic of Macedonia. They demanded that the constitution be rewritten to enshrine certain
Albanian minority
interests such as language rights. The guerillas received support from Albanians in NATO-controlled Kosovo and Albanian
guerrillas
in the demilitarized zone between Kosovo and the rest of Serbia. The fighting was concentrated in and around Tetovo, the fifth largest city in the country, and in the wider regions of Skopje, the capital, and Kumanovo, the third largest city.
After a joint NATO-Serb crackdown on Albanian guerrillas in Kosovo, European Union (EU) officials were able to negotiate a cease-fire in June. The government would give to the citizens of Albanian descent greater civil rights, and the guerrilla groups would voluntarily relinquish their weapons to NATO monitors. This agreement was a success, and in August 2001 3,500 NATO soldiers conducted "Operations Essential Harvest" to retrieve the arms. Directly after the operation finished in September the NLA officially dissolved itself. Ethnic relations have since improved significantly, although hardliners on both sides have been a continued cause for concern and some low level violence continues particularly directed against police.
On 26 February 2004, President
Boris Trajkovski
died in a plane crash near
Mostar
,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
. The results of the official investigation revealed that the cause of the plane accident was procedural mistakes by the crew, committed during the approach to land at
Mostar Airport
.
In March 2004, the country submitted an
application for membership of the European Union
, and on 17 December 2005 was listed by the EU Presidency conclusions as an accession candidate (as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"). However, accession proceedings were delayed due to opposition by Greece until the 2018 resolution of the
Macedonia naming dispute
, and later by Bulgaria due to unresolved differences between the two countries on the history of the region and what is perceived as "anti-Bulgarian ideology".
[31]
[32]
2010s?2020s
[
edit
]
In June 2017,
Zoran Zaev
of
Social Democratic Union of Macedonia
(SDSM) became new Prime Minister six months after early elections. The new center-left government ended 11 years of conservative
VMRO-DPMNE
rule led by former Prime Minister
Nikola Gruevski
.
[33]
In June 2018, the
Prespa agreement
was reached between the governments of
Greece
and the then-Republic of Macedonia to rename the latter the Republic of North Macedonia, or
North Macedonia
for short. This agreement, after it had been accepted by the respective legislatures of both countries, came into effect on 12 February 2019, thus ending the disputes.
[34]
Stevo Pendarovski
(SDSM) was sworn in as North Macedonia's new president in May 2019.
[35]
The early parliamentary elections took place on 15 July 2020.
[36]
Zoran Zaev has served as the Prime Minister of the Republic of North Macedonia again since August 2020.
[37]
Prime Minister Zoran Zaev announced his resignation after his party, the Social Democratic Union, suffered losses in local elections in October 2021.
[38]
After internal party leadership elections,
Dimitar Kova?evski
succeeded him as leader of the SDSM on 12 December 2021,
[39]
and was sworn in as Prime Minister of North Macedonia on 16 January 2022, securing a 62?46 confidence vote in Parliament for his new SDSM-led coalition cabinet.
[40]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Bauer, Susan Wise:
The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome
(2007),
ISBN
0-393-05974-X
, page 518: "... Italy; to the north, Thracian tribes known collectively as the Paeonians."
- ^
Wilkes, John:
The Illyrians
, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996,
ISBN
0-631-19807-5
, p. 49.
- ^
Sealey, Raphael
,
A history of the Greek city states, ca. 700-338 B.C.
, p. 442.
University of California Press
, 1976.
ISBN
0-520-03177-6
.
- ^
Evans, Thammy,
Macedonia
, Bradt Travel Guides, 2007,
ISBN
1-84162-186-2
, p. 13
- ^
Borza, Eugene N.,
In the shadow of Olympus: the emergence of Macedon
, Princeton University Press, 1992,
ISBN
0-691-00880-9
, pp. 74-75.
- ^
Lewis, D.M. et al. (ed.),
The Cambridge ancient history: The fourth century B.C.
, Cambridge University Press, 2000,
ISBN
0-521-23348-8
, pp. 723-724.
- ^
The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 3, Part 3: The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries BC by John Boardman and N. G. L. Hammond, 1982,
ISBN
0-521-23447-6
, page 284
- ^
Timothy Howe, Jeanne Reames.
"Macedonian Legacies: Studies in Ancient Macedonian History and Culture in Honor of Eugene N. Borza"
Regina Books, 2008, Originally from the
Indiana University
. Digitalised 3 November 2010
ISBN
9781930053564
. p. 239
- ^
Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011).
A Companion to Ancient Macedonia
. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN
9781444351637
. Retrieved
17 December
2014
.
- ^
"Persian influence on Greece (2)"
. Archived from
the original
on 24 July 2020
. Retrieved
17 December
2014
.
- ^
Poulton, Hugh,
Who are the Macedonians?
C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2000,
ISBN
1-85065-534-0
, p. 14.
- ^
"Skopje | Facts, Map, & Points of Interest | Britannica"
.
www.britannica.com
. 24 April 2024.
- ^
"Archived copy"
.
img53.exs.cx
. Archived from
the original
on 19 October 2013
. Retrieved
27 April
2022
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
http://assets.cambridge.org/97805217/70170/excerpt/9780521770170_excerpt.pdf
[
bare URL PDF
]
- ^
Paul Stephenson, Byzantium's Balkan Frontier: A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900-1204, Cambridge University Press, 29 iun. 2000, p.307
- ^
Michael Palairet, Macedonia: A Voyage through History (Vol. 2, From the Fifteenth Century to the Present), Vol. 2; Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2016,
ISBN
1443888494
, p. 2.
- ^
"North Macedonia | History, Geography, & Points of Interest"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Retrieved
26 April
2020
.
- ^
Skenderbeu dhe lufta shqiptaro-turke ne shek. XV
. Frasheri, Kristo., Akademia e Shkencave e Shqiperise. Tirane: Botimet Toena. 2005.
ISBN
99943-1-042-9
.
OCLC
70911640
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: others (
link
)
- ^
Frasheri, Kristo; Frasheri, Gjergj; Dhamo, Dhorka; Kuqali, Andon; Dashi, Sulejman (2003), "Albania",
Oxford Art Online
, Oxford University Press,
doi
:
10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t001473
- ^
Encyclopædia Britannica ? Rumelia
at Encyclopædia Britannica.com
- ^
The Encyclopædia Britannica, or, Dictionary of arts, sciences ..., Volume 19
. 1859. p. 464.
- ^
Walter Pohl. (p. 13-24 in: Debating the Middle Ages: Issues and Readings, Ed. Lester K. Little and Barbara H. Rosenwein, Blackwell Publishers, 1998)
Ethnic boundaries are not static, and even less so in a period of migrations. It is possible to change one's ethnicity... Even more frequently, in the Early Middle Ages, people lived under circumstances of ethnic ambiguity
.
- ^
John V A Fine. When Ethnicity Did Not Matter in the Balkans. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN
0-472-11414-X
. Pg 3
most South Slavs mentioned with specific national-type names mentioned in our sources were such by political affiliation, namely that the individuals named so served the given state's ruler, and cannot be considered ethnic Serbs, Croats or whatever
- ^
Note that this map does not reflect any internationally established borders or armistice lines ? it only reflect opinion of the researchers from London Geographical Institute about issue how final borders should look after the Paris Peace Conference.
- ^
The British Foreign Office and Macedonian National Identity, 1918-1941, Andrew Rossos' Slavic Review, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Summer, 1994), pp. 369-394
[1]
- ^
Marshall Lee Miller,
Bulgaria During the Second World War
, Stanford University Press, 1975, p.123
- ^
"Archived copy"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 1 July 2014
. Retrieved
14 June
2006
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
link
)
- ^
"Faculty of Law, University of Skopje"
. Archived from
the original
on 30 June 2012.
- ^
Kiro Gligorov was elected president on 31 January 1991, when SR Macedonia was still an official name of the nation. After the change of the state's name, he continued his function as a
President of the Republic of Macedonia
?
The Official Site of The President of the Republic of Macedonia
Archived
30 April 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"A/RES/47/225. Admission of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to membership in the United Nations"
. Archived from
the original
on 4 July 2017
. Retrieved
28 June
2017
.
- ^
Marusic, Sinisa Jakov (10 October 2019).
"Bulgaria Sets Tough Terms for North Macedonia's EU Progress Skopje"
.
Balkan Insight
. Archived from
the original
on 11 December 2019.
- ^
"Bulgaria sends memorandum to the Council on North Macedonia"
.
Radio Bulgaria
. 17 September 2020.
- ^
"Macedonia gets new government six months after elections | DW | 01.06.2017"
.
Deutsche Welle
.
- ^
"North Macedonia name change enters force | DW | 12.02.2019"
.
Deutsche Welle
.
- ^
"North Macedonia's new president Stevo Pendarovski takes office"
. 12 May 2019.
- ^
"EM North Macedonia: Review of the 2020 parliamentary elections in North Macedonia - European Movement"
. 16 November 2022.
- ^
"President of the Government of the Republic of North Macedonia ? Zoran Zaev"
. 11 May 2018.
- ^
"North Macedonia Prime Minister Zoran Zaev resigns | DW | 31.10.2021"
.
Deutsche Welle
.
- ^
"North Macedonia Ruling Party Elects Dimitar Kovacevski as Leader"
.
Balkan Insight
. 13 December 2021
. Retrieved
29 December
2021
.
- ^
"North Macedonia's Lawmakers Elect Dimitar Kovacevski As New PM"
.
Radio Free Europe
. 17 January 2022
. Retrieved
17 January
2022
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Mattioli, Fabio (2020).
Dark Finance: Illiquidity and Authoritarianism at the Margins of Europe
. Stanford University Press.
ISBN
978-1-5036-1294-5
.
External links
[
edit
]
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