The
history of Hispanics and Latinos in the United States
is wide-ranging, spanning more than four hundred years of American colonial and post-colonial history. Hispanics (whether criollo, mulatto, afro-mestizo or mestizo) became the first American citizens in the newly acquired
Southwest
territory after the
Mexican?American War
, and remained a majority in several states until the 20th century.
As late as 1783, at the end of the
American Revolutionary War
, Spain
[1]
held claim to roughly half of today's continental United States. In the
Treaty of Paris
France ceded
Louisiana (New France)
to Spain from 1763 until it was returned in 1800 by the
Treaty of San Ildefonso
. In 1775, Spanish ships reached
Alaska
.
[2]
From 1819 to 1848, the United States and its army increased the nation's area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, gaining among others three of today's four most populous states:
California
,
Texas
and
Florida
.
Spanish expeditions
[
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]
Spanish expeditions that took place in the South and East of North America
[
edit
]
The first confirmed landing in the continental United States was by a Spaniard,
Juan Ponce de Leon
, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened
La Florida
. Within three decades of Ponce de Leon's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the
Appalachian Mountains
, the
Mississippi River
, the
Grand Canyon
and the
Great Plains
. Spanish ships sailed along the
East Coast
, penetrating to present-day
Bangor, Maine
, and up the
Pacific Coast
as far as
Oregon
.
From 1528 to 1536, four castaways from a Spanish expedition, including a "black"
Moor
,
Estevanico
, journeyed all the way from Florida to the
Gulf of California
, 267 years before
Lewis and Clark
embarked on their much more renowned and far less arduous trek.
In 1540
Hernando de Soto
undertook an extensive exploration of the present US, developing expeditions in
Georgia
,
The Carolinas
,
Tennessee
,
Alabama
,
Mississippi
,
Arkansas
,
Oklahoma
,
Texas
and
Louisiana
; and in the same year
Francisco Vasquez de Coronado
led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today's
Arizona
–
Mexico
border. Coronado travelled as far as central
Kansas
, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States and he was the first European that saw the Canyon's Colorado. Other Spanish explorers of the US make up a long list that includes among others,
Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon
,
Panfilo de Narvaez
,
Sebastian Vizcaino
,
Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo
,
Gaspar de Portola
,
Pedro Menendez de Aviles
,
Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca
,
Tristan de Luna y Arellano
and
Juan de Onate
. All of them explored the South of the present-day USA. On the other hand,
Esteban Gomes
led expeditions along the eastern coasts of North America as far as Nova Scotia.
The Spanish settled within the area, creating the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at
St. Augustine, Florida
in 1565.
Santa Fe, New Mexico
also predates
Jamestown, Virginia
(of
Pocahontas
fame, founded in 1607) and
Plymouth Colony
(of
Mayflower
,
Pilgrims
and
Thanksgiving
fame). In 1566 Pedro Menendez established Fort San Felipe on
Santa Elena
- which is present day
Parris Island
near
Beaufort, South Carolina
. The fort was part of the Spanish King's ongoing effort to establish a “Window on the Atlantic”. Spain needed a presence on the east coast of America to provide protection for the Spanish treasure galleons traveling back to Europe. From Santa Elena inland explorations, led by Captain
Juan Pardo
, were conducted in an attempt to establish an overland route from Mexico to Santa Elena, avoiding the pirate and French threat in the Caribbean. By 1571 Menendez had brought settlers, including farmers and craftsmen, and his own family to the settlement. Santa Elena was now the first European capitol on the American mainland, with Mendez as Governor. Santa Elena was a functioning settlement for 21 years, ending when Spain consolidated its Florida colony to St. Augustine.
[3]
Later came Spanish settlements in
San Antonio
,
Tucson
,
San Diego
, Los Angeles and San Francisco, to name just a few. The Spanish even established a
Jesuit
mission in
Virginia
's
Chesapeake Bay
37 years before the founding of Jamestown.
As a result of the persistent contributions made by Latinos to American culture, essential changes have resulted in the development of a complex national minority group that is now an important part of US society.
[4]
Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too. Almost 80 years before
John Smith
's alleged rescue by
Pocahontas
, a man by the name of
Juan Ortiz
told of his similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving, 56 years before the Pilgrims, when they feasted near St. Augustine with Florida Indians, probably on stewed pork and garbanzo beans.
Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest
[
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]
Spanish claims to
Alaska
and the west coast of North America date to the
Papal bull
of 1493, and the
Treaty of Tordesillas
. In 1513, this claim was reinforced by Spanish explorer
Vasco Nunez de Balboa
, the first European to sight the Pacific Ocean when he claimed all lands adjoining this ocean for the Spanish Crown. Spain only started to colonize the claimed territory north of present-day Mexico in the 18th century, when it settled the northern coast of
Las Californias
(California). In the last decades of the 18th century a series of Spanish expeditions were undertaken along the north-west coasts of North America, including
Oregon
,
Washington
,
British Columbia
and Alaska. In the 19th century the Spanish explorer
Manuel Lisa
, first settler of
Nebraska
, left
St. Louis, Missouri
to head northwest toward Montana, inaugurating the
Oregon Trail
. The Spanish moved from Western Missouri to eastern Montana, and along the
Yellowstone
to western and southern Montana.
[5]
Hispanic American presence in the former British colonies of the United States at the end of the eighteenth century
[
edit
]
1790 U.S Ancestry
Based on Evaluated census figures
[6]
|
Ancestry group
|
Number
(1790 estimate)
|
% of
total
|
English
|
1,900,000
|
47.5
|
African
|
750,000
|
19.0
|
Scotch-Irish
|
320,000
|
8.0
|
German
|
280,000
|
7.0
|
Irish
|
200,000
|
5.0
|
Scottish
|
160,000
|
4.0
|
Welsh
|
120,000
|
3.0
|
Dutch
|
100,000
|
2.5
|
French
|
80,000
|
2.0
|
Native American
|
50,000
|
1.0
|
Spanish
|
20,000
|
0.5
[Note 1]
|
Swedish
and other
|
20,000
|
0.5
|
Total
|
4,000,000
[7]
|
100
|
Some Hispanics emigrated to some of the future British colonies of North America in the early of the 17th century. Among these immigrants was the Dominican
Juan Rodriguez
, who arrived in present-day New York City in 1613, as he was a member of the crew of a Dutch ship, and lived there for some time. He was the first non-Native American to reside in the region.
[8]
Many others emigrated in the 18th century. Migration to eastern North America continued when the colonies gained independence from the UK. So between end of this century and early of nineteenth century emigrated people of origins such as the Spanish, Venezuelan and Honduran to the United States. A notable case is that of the Spanish merchant
Pedro Casanave
, who emigrated to Georgetown, in present-day
Washington DC
, in 1785. He served as the fifth mayor of Georgetown and presided over the ceremonial laying of the cornerstone of the
White House
, on October 12, 1792.
[9]
Another member of the Casanave family,
Juan de Miralles
, was a prominent Spanish arms dealer who lived in New Jersey.
Using comparative approaches developed for urban areas, researchers compare and statistically model changes in the family income established Hispanic, rapidly growing Hispanic, rapidly growing non-Hispanic, and slow-growth or declining counties. The findings support perspectives that emphasize growing social heterogeneity in understanding how minority population growth contributes to inequality, including changes in human capital and industrial restructuring.
[10]
According to the
United States Census of 1790
, which was the first census of the whole United States, there were 20,000 people of Hispanic origin living in the former British colonies in that year. However, the census Bureau estimated the origins of the population based on their surnames.
[11]
On the other hand, between 1779 and 1783 several Spanish troops provided aid to the Americans in their fight against the British Crown's troops in the
American Revolutionary War
.
[12]
In addition, some Spaniards living in the U.S. joined the American troops during the war. Maybe the more notable case was starred by
Jorge Farragut
, the Spanish lieutenant of the
South Carolina Navy
in the war. He settled in Tennessee and his son,
David Farragut
, stood out in the
American Civil War
.
Florida
[
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]
Juan Ponce de Leon
, a Spanish
conquistador
, named Florida in honor of his discovery of the land on April 2, 1513, during
Pascua Florida
, a Spanish term for the
Easter season
. From that date forward, the land became known as "La Florida." (Juan Ponce de Leon may not have been the first European to reach Florida. At least one native that he encountered in Florida in 1513 could speak Spanish.
[13]
Alternatively, the Spanish-speaking native could have been in contact with areas where Spanish settlements already existed, and Ponce de Leon was indeed the discoverer).
Over the following century, both the Spanish and French established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success. In 1559, Spanish
Pensacola
was established by Don
Tristan de Luna y Arellano
as the first European settlement in the continental United States, but it had become abandoned by 1561 and would not be reinhabited until the 1690s. French
Huguenots
founded
Fort Caroline
in modern-day
Jacksonville
in 1564, but this fort was conquered by forces from the new Spanish colony of
St. Augustine
the following year. After Huguenot leader
Jean Ribault
had learned of the new Spanish threat, he launched an expedition to sack the Spanish settlement; en route, however, severe storms at sea waylaid the expedition, which consisted of most of the colony's men, allowing St. Augustine founder
Pedro Menendez de Aviles
time to march his men over land and conquer Fort Caroline. Most of the Huguenots were slaughtered, and Menendez de Aviles marched south and captured the survivors of the wrecked French fleet, ordering all but a few
Catholics
executed beside a river subsequently called
Matanzas
(Spanish for 'killings'). When St. Augustine, Florida was established by Pedro Menendez de Aviles, and hundreds of Spanish-Cuban soldiers and their families moved from Cuba to St. Augustine to establish a new life in 1565. St. Augustine came to serve as the capitals of the British and Spanish colonies of
East
and
West Florida
, respectively. The Spanish never had a firm hold on Florida, and maintained tenuous control over the region by converting the local tribes, briefly with
Jesuits
and later with
Franciscan
friars. The local leaders (
caciques
) demonstrated their loyalty to the Spanish by converting to Roman Catholicism and welcoming the Franciscan priests into their villages.
The area of Spanish Florida diminished with the establishment of English colonies to the north and French colonies to the west. The English weakened Spanish power in the area by supplying their
Creek Indian
allies with firearms and urging them to raid the
Timucuan
and
Apalachee
client-tribes of the Spanish. The English attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times, while the citizens hid behind the walls of the
Castillo de San Marcos
. The Spanish, meanwhile, encouraged slaves to flee the English-held
Carolinas
and come to Florida, where they were converted to Roman Catholicism and given freedom. They settled in a buffer community north of St. Augustine, called
Gracia Real de Santa Teresa de Mose
, the first completely black settlement in what would become the United States. Great Britain gained control of Florida diplomatically in 1763 through the
Peace of Paris
(the Castillo de San Marcos surrendered for the first time, having never been taken militarily). Britain tried to develop Florida through the importation of immigrants for labor, including some from
Menorca
and Greece, but this project ultimately failed. Spain regained Florida in the
Treaty of Versailles (1783)
after helping defeat Britain in the
American Revolutionary War
. Finally, in 1819, by terms of the
Adams?Onis Treaty
, Spain ceded Florida to the United States in exchange for the American renunciation of any claims on
Texas
. On March 3, 1845, Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America.
Louisiana
[
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]
In 1763, France ceded Louisiana to Spain to compensate for the loss of Florida, which had been ceded to the British in 1763 after losing the war of the 7 years (Spain and France were allies). The Government of Louisiana lived in
New Orleans
, capital of Lower Louisiana, but had representatives (or "commandants") in
Saint Louis, Missouri
, capital of Upper Louisiana (also named
Illinois Country
). During the Louisiana's Spanish period, many Spanish settlers emigrated to this region, such was the case of the father of the explorer and fur trader
Manuel Lisa
, who hailed from
Murcia, Spain
. However, the more known Spanish emigration during this period happened between 1778 and 1783, when the Governor of Louisiana
Bernardo de Galvez
recruited groups from the
Canary Islands
and
Malaga
and sent them to Louisiana in order to populate regions of New Orleans. So, more than 2,100 Canarians and 500 Malaga's natives emigrated to Louisiana in these period. In 1800, Spain returned Louisiana to France, although it sell it to the U.S. in 1803. The descendants of Spanish settlers still living there.
California (1530?1765)
[
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]
The first European explorers, flying the flags of Spain, sailed along the coast of California from the early 16th to the mid-18th centuries, but no European settlements were established. The most important colonial power, Spain, focused attention on its imperial centers in
Mexico
,
Peru
, and the
Philippines
. Confident of Spanish claims to all lands touching the Pacific Ocean (including California), Spain simply sent an occasional exploring party sailing along the California coast. The California seen by these ship-bound explorers was one of hilly grasslands and forests, with few apparent resources or natural ports to attract colonists.
The other colonial states of the era, with their interest on more densely populated areas, paid limited attention to this distant part of the world. It was not until the middle of the 18th century, that both
Russian
and British explorers and fur-traders began encroaching on the margins of the area.
Hernan Cortes
[
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]
About 1530,
Nuno Beltran de Guzman
(President of
New Spain
) was told by an Indian slave of the
Seven Cities of Cibola
that had streets paved with gold and silver. About the same time, Hernan Cortes was attracted by stories of a wonderful country far to the northwest, populated by
Amazonish women
and abounding with gold, pearls, and gems. The Spaniards conjectured that these places may be one and the same.
An expedition in 1533 discovered a bay, most likely that of
La Paz
, before experiencing difficulties and returning. Cortes accompanied expeditions in 1534 and 1535 without finding the sought-after city.
On May 3, 1535, Cortes claimed "Santa Cruz Island" (now known as the peninsula of
Baja California
), and laid out and founded the city that was to become La Paz later that spring.
Francisco de Ulloa
[
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]
Also:
Island of California
In July 1539, moved by the renewal of those stories, Cortes sent Francisco de Ulloa out with three small vessels. He made it to the mouth of the Colorado, then sailed around the peninsula as far as
Cedros Island
.
The account of this voyage marks the first recorded application of the name "California". It can be traced to the fifth volume of a chivalric romance,
Amadis de Gallia
, arranged by
Garci Rodriguez de Montalvo
and first printed around 1510, in which a character traveled through an island called "California".
Joao Rodrigues Cabrilho
[
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]
California is shown as an island on this 1650 map. The smaller islands located in the "channel" were mentioned in an early myth and subsequently included by mapmakers over the centuries who took it on faith that region had actually been explored.
The first European to explore the coast was
Joao Rodrigues Cabrilho
, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the
Spanish Crown
. In June, 1542 Cabrillo led an expedition in two ships from the west coast of what is now Mexico. He landed on September 28 at
San Diego Bay
, claiming what he thought was the
Island of California
for Spain.
Cabrillo and his crew landed on
San Miguel
, one of the
Channel Islands
, then continued north in an attempt to discover a supposed coastal route to the mainland of Asia. Cabrillo likely sailed as far north as
Pt. Reyes
(north of San Francisco), but died as the result of an accident during this voyage; the remainder of the expedition, which likely reached as far north as the
Rogue River
in today's southern
Oregon
was led by
Bartolome Ferrer
.
[14]
Sebastian Vizcaino
[
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]
In 1602, the Spaniard Sebastian Vizcaino explored California's coastline as far north as
Monterey Bay
, where he put ashore. He ventured inland south along the coast, and recorded a visit to what is likely
Carmel Bay
. His major contributions to the state's history were the glowing reports of the Monterey area as an anchorage and as land suitable for settlement, as well as the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters (which were used for nearly 200 years).
[15]
Spanish colonization and governance (1765?1821)
[
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]
During the last quarter of the 18th century, the first European settlements were established in California. Reacting to interest by Russia and possibly Great Britain in the fur-bearing animals of the Pacific coast, Spain created a series of Catholic missions, accompanied by troops and ranches, along the southern and central coast of California. These missions were intended to demonstrate the claim of the Spanish Crown to modern-day California.
The first quarter of the 19th century continued the slow colonization of the southern and central California coast by Spanish missionaries, ranchers, and troops. By 1820, Spanish influence was marked by the chain of missions reaching from San Diego to just north of today's San Francisco Bay area, and extended inland approximately 25 to 50 miles from the missions. Outside of this zone, perhaps 200,000 to 250,000 Native Americans were continuing to lead traditional lives. The
Adams?Onis Treaty
, signed in 1819 set the northern boundary of the Spanish claims at the 42nd parallel, effectively creating today's northern boundary of California.
First Spanish colonies
[
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]
Spain had maintained a number of missions and presidios in its richer lands (not including California) since 1493. The Spanish claims to the Northern provinces of
New Spain
, excluding Santa Fe in New Mexico, were essentially ignored for almost 250 years. It wasn't until the threat of an incursion by Russia coming down from Alaska in 1765, however, that King
Charles III of Spain
felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California. By then the Spanish empire could only afford a minimal effort. Alta California was to be settled by Franciscan friars protected by a few troops in
California Missions
. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of small expeditions to further explore and settle California and possibly the
Pacific Northwest
.
Gaspar de Portola
[
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]
In May 1768, the Spanish Visitor General,
Jose de Galvez
, planned a four-prong expedition to settle Alta California, two by sea and two by land, which Gaspar de Portola volunteered to command.
The Portola land expedition arrived at the site of present-day
San Diego
on June 29, 1769, where it established the
Presidio of San Diego
. Eager to press on to Monterey Bay, de Portola and his group, consisting of
Juan Crespi
, sixty-three leather-jacket soldiers and a hundred mules, headed north on July 14. They moved quickly, reaching the present-day sites of Los Angeles on August 2,
Santa Monica
on August 3,
Santa Barbara
on August 19,
San Simeon
on September 13 and the mouth of the
Salinas River
on Octob. Although they were looking for
Monterey Bay
, the group failed to recognize it when they reached it.
On October 31, de Portola's explorers became the first Europeans known to view
San Francisco Bay
. Ironically, the
Manila Galleons
had sailed along this coast for almost 200 years by then. The group returned to San Diego in 1770.
Junipero Serra
[
edit
]
A portrait of Junipero Serra.
Junipero Serra was a
Majorcan
(Spain)
Franciscan
who founded the
Alta California
mission
chain. After
King Carlos III
ordered the
Jesuits
expelled from "New Spain" on February 3, 1768, Serra was named "Father Presidente."
Serra founded
San Diego de Alcala
in 1769. Later that year, Serra, Governor de Portola and a small group of men moved north, up the
Pacific Coast
. They reached
Monterey
in 1770, where Serra founded the second Alta California mission,
San Carlos Borromeo
.
Alta California missions
[
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]
The California Missions comprise a series of religious outposts established by Spanish
Catholic
Dominicans
,
Jesuits
, and
Franciscans
, to spread the Christian doctrine among the local
Native Americans
, but with the added benefit of confirming historic Spanish claims to the area. The missions introduced European livestock, fruits, vegetables, and industry into the
California
region.
Most missions were small, with normally two Franciscans and six to eight soldiers in residence. All of these buildings were built largely with unpaid native labor under Franciscan supervision. In addition to the
presidio
(royal fort) and
pueblo
(town), the
mision
was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown in an attempt to consolidate its
colonial
territories. None of these missions were completely self-supporting, requiring continued (albeit modest) financial support. Starting with the onset of the
Mexican War of Independence
in 1810, this support largely disappeared and the missions and their converts were left on their own.
In order to facilitate overland travel, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback along the 600-mile (966-kilometer) long
El Camino Real
(Spanish for "The Royal Highway", though often referred to as "The King's Highway"), and also known as the
California Mission Trail
. Heavy freight movement was practical only via water. Tradition has it that the priests sprinkled
mustard
seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers.
Four presidios, strategically placed along the California coast and organized into separate
military districts
, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California.
A number of mission structures survive today or have been rebuilt, and many have congregations established since the beginning of the 20th century. The highway and missions have become for many a romantic symbol of an idyllic and peaceful past. The "
Mission Revival Style
" was an architectural movement that drew its inspiration from this idealized view of California's past.
Ranchos
[
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]
The Spanish (and later the Mexicans) encouraged settlement with large land grants which were turned into ranchos, where cattle and sheep were raised. Cow hides (at roughly $1 each) and fat (known as tallow, used to make candles as well as soaps) were the primary exports of California until the mid-19th century. The owners of these ranchos styled themselves after the
landed gentry
in Spain. Their workers included some Native Americans who had learned to speak Spanish and ride horses.
Mexican era (1821?1846)
[
edit
]
General
[
edit
]
Substantial changes occurred during the second quarter of the 19th century. Mexican independence from Spain in 1821 marked the end of European rule in California; the missions faded in importance under Mexican control while ranching and trade increased. By the mid-1840s, the increased presence of White Americans made the northern part of the state diverge from southern California, where the Spanish-speaking "
Californios
" dominated.
By 1846, California had a Spanish-speaking population of under 10,000, tiny even compared to the sparse population of states in Mexico proper. The "
Californios
", as they were known, consisted of about 800 families, mostly concentrated on a few large ranchos. About 1,300 White Americans and a very mixed group of about 500 Europeans, scattered mostly from Monterey to Sacramento dominated trading as the Californios dominated ranching. In terms of adult males, the two groups were about equal, but the Americans were more recent arrivals.
Secularization
[
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]
The
Mexican Congress
passed
An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California
on August 17, 1833.
Mission San Juan Capistrano
was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year. The Franciscans soon thereafter abandoned the missions, taking with them most everything of value, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials.
Other nationalities
[
edit
]
- In this period, American and British trappers began entering California in search of beaver. Using the
Siskiyou Trail
,
Old Spanish Trail
, and later, the
California Trail
, these trapping parties arrived in California, often without the knowledge or approval of the Mexican authorities, and laid the foundation for the arrival of later
Gold Rush era
Forty-Niners
, farmers and ranchers.
- In 1840, the American adventurer, writer and lawyer
Richard Henry Dana Jr.
wrote of his experiences aboard ship off California in the 1830s in
Two Years Before the Mast
.
- The leader of a French scientific expedition to California, Eugene Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840 "...it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a
man-of-war
and two hundred men."
[16]
In 1841, General Vallejo wrote Governor Alvarado that "...there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California", but a series of troubled French governments did not uphold French interests in the area. During disagreements with Mexicans, the German-Swiss
Francophile
John Sutter
threatened to raise the French flag over California and place himself and his settlement,
New Helvetia
, under French protection.
By 1846, the province had a non-Native American population of about 1500 Californio adult men (with about 6500 women and children), who lived mostly in the southern half. About 2,000 recent immigrants (almost all adult men) lived mostly in the northern half of California.
Arizona and New Mexico
[
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]
Arizona
[
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]
Spanish period
[
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]
Most of the colonists left Arizona after
Juan Bautista de Anza
announced that the area was not rich in raw material; however, several settlers stayed and became subsistence farmers. During the mid-18th century, the pioneers of Arizona attempted to expand their territory northward, but were prevented from doing so by the
Tohono O'odham
and Apache Native Americans, who had begun raiding their villages for livestock.
In 1765,
Charles III of Spain
doing a major rearranging of the presidios (military fortresses) on the northern frontier. The Jesuits were expelled from the area, and the Franciscans took their place at their missions. In the 1780s and 1790s, the Spanish began a plan of setting up Apache peace camps and providing the Apache with rations so that they would not attack, allowing the Spanish to expand northward.
Mexican period
[
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]
In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain, annexing the southwest of the present United States, including Arizona. As missions began to wither, Mexico began auctioning off more land, causing the Pimeria Alta and the Apacheria to shrink as territory expanded. In the meantime, American
mountain men
began to enter the region, looking to trap beavers for their pelts. In 1836,
Texas
declared independence from Mexico and claimed much of the territory in the northern lands of Mexico. When the United States annexed Texas in 1846 over the strong objections of the Mexican government, U.S. troops moved into disputed territory. The hostilities erupted in the
Mexican?American War
(1846?1848). The U.S. occupied
Mexico City
and forced the newly founded Mexican Republic to give up its northern half, including the later Arizona.
New Mexico
[
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]
The settlement began on July 11, 1598 the Spanish explorer
Juan de Onate
came north from Mexico to New Mexico with 500 Spanish settlers and soldiers and a livestock formed by 7,000 animals. They founded
San Juan de los Caballeros
, the first Spanish settlement in New Mexico.
[17]
Onate also conquered the territories of Puebloan peoples and he became the first governor of New Mexico. 12 years later, the Pueblo Indian revolt forced the flight of the settlers and their descendants in New Mexico, but they returned to the province in 1692, when
Diego de Vargas
became the new governor of New Mexico. At that time, New Mexico was under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Guadalajara and belonging to the
Viceroyalty of New Spain
. However, with the creation in 1777 of the Commandancy General of the Provinces was included only in the jurisdiction of the
Commandant-General
. The mainland part of New Spain won independence from Spain in 1821 and in 1824 joined New Mexico to Mexico, belonging to same country .
Texas
[
edit
]
Spanish period
[
edit
]
Alonso Alvarez de Pineda
claimed Texas for Spain in 1519. The main unifying factor for these separate regions was their shared responsibility of defending the Tejas frontier. The first Tejano settlers were 15 families from the
Canary Islands
arrived in 1731. Their family units were among the first to settle at the Presidio of San Antonio. Soon after, they established the first civil government in Texas at La Villa de San Fernando.
The Nacogdoches settlement was located in the North Texas region. Tejanos from Nacogdoches traded with the French and Anglo residents of Louisiana, and were culturally influenced by them. The third settlement was located North of the Rio Grande toward the Nueces River. These Southern ranchers were citizens of Spanish origin from
Tamaulipas
and Northern Mexico, and identified with both Spanish and Mexican culture. 1821,
Agustin de Iturbide
launched a drive for Mexican Independence. Texas became a part of the newly independent nation without a shot being fired.
Mexican period
[
edit
]
In 1821 at the end of the
Mexican War of Independence
, there were about 4,000 Tejanos living in what is now the state of Texas alongside a lesser number of immigrants. In the 1820s many settlers from the United States and other nations moved to Texas from the United States. By 1830, the 30,000 settlers in Texas outnumbered the Tejanos six to one. The
Texians
and Tejanos alike rebelled against the attempts of centralist authority of
Mexico City
and the measures implemented by
Santa Anna
. Tensions between the central Mexican government and the settlers eventually led to the
Texas Revolution
. After the revolution, many were dismayed by the treatments they received at the hands of Texians/Anglos, who suspected and accused the Tejanos of sabotage and of aiding Santa Anna.
United States era (beginning 1846)
[
edit
]
Mexican Cession
[
edit
]
When war was declared on May 13, 1846 between the United States and Mexico, it took almost two months (mid-July 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. Units from the U.S.Army and Navy were poised to invade, and easily captured California against scattered resistance. Within days they controlled San Francisco, Sonoma, and Sutter's Fort in Sacramento as Mexican General Castro and Governor Pio Pico fled from Los Angeles.
The
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
, signed on February 2, 1848, marked the end of the Mexican?American War. In that treaty, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $18,250,000; Mexico formally ceded California (and other northern territories) to the United States, and a new international boundary was drawn; San Diego Bay is the only natural harbor in California south of San Francisco, and to claim all this strategic water, the border was slanted to include it. About 10,000
Californios
of Spanish descent lived in California, nearly all in the south. They were granted full American citizenship and voting rights. However the
California Gold Rush
, in the north, brought in over 100,000 men who far outnumbered the resident Californios. California became a state in 1850.
[18]
Moreover, although the United States had promised to respect Mexican American property rights, the financial stability of the original Californio-Mexican residents decreased substantially due to elevated land values in the late 1860s and 1870s, high-interest loans and taxes, all of which contributed to widespread property loss and marginalization.
[19]
Incorporation of the Hispanic people
[
edit
]
The
Mexican?American War
, followed by the
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
in 1848 and the
Gadsden Purchase
in 1853, extended U.S. control over a wide range of territory once held by Spain and later Mexico, including the present day states of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and California. The vast majority of Hispanic populations chose to stay and become full US citizens. Although the treaty promised that the landowners in this newly acquired territory would enjoy full enjoyment and protection of their property as if they were citizens of the United States, many former citizens of Mexico lost their land in lawsuits before state and federal courts or as a result of legislation passed after the treaty.
[20]
Even those statutes intended to protect the owners of property at the time of the extension of the United States' borders, such as the 1851 California Land Act, had the effect of dispossessing
Californio
owners ruined by the cost of maintaining litigation over land titles for years.
The loss of property rights in New Mexico created a largely landless population that resented the powers that had taken their land.
[21]
After the Santa Fe Ring succeeded in dispossessing thousands of landholders in New Mexico, groups such as
Las Gorras Blancas
tore down fences or burned down interlopers' farm buildings. In western Texas the political struggle even sparked an
armed conflict
in which the
Tejano
majority briefly forced the surrender of the
Texas Rangers
, but in the end lost much of their previous influence, offices, and economic opportunities.
In other areas, particularly California, the settled Hispanic residents were simply overwhelmed by the large number of Anglo settlers who rushed in, first in Northern California as a result of the
California Gold Rush
,
[22]
then decades later by the boom in Southern California. Many Anglos turned to farming and moved, often illegally, onto the land granted to Californios by the old Mexican government.
[22]
During the California Gold Rush, at least 25,000 Mexicans, as well thousands of
Chileans
,
Peruvians
, and other
Hispanics
immigrated to California.
[23]
Many of these Hispanics were experienced
miners
and had great success mining gold in California.
[24]
Many of these new Americans eventually rose to prominence within larger California society. However, in other cases, their initial success aroused animosity by rival groups of Anglo prospectors, who often intimidated Hispanic miners with the threat of violence and even committed violence against some. Consistent with the predominant racial attitudes of 19th century America, Anglo miners often drove Hispanic miners out of their camps, and barred Hispanics, along with Irish, Chinese, and other traditionally "non-Anglo" groups, from testifying in court and generally imposed exclusionary standards similar to
Jim Crow laws
in the case of African-Americans.
[25]
Between 1848 and 1860, at least 163 Mexicans were lynched in California alone.
[24]
In addition to California, many Mexicans immigrated to other places of Southwest (mainly Arizona, New Mexico and Texas) since 1852. Also many Colombians, Paraguayans (who emigrated to the United States since 1841
[26]
), Chileans and Cubans emigrated to several places of the United States during the nineteenth. The more numerous were the Cubans. 100,000 Cubans (belonging to all social and racial groups) emigrated to the United States (mostly to Florida) during this period. In 1861-65 many
Hispanics fought in the American Civil War
, on both the Union and Confederate sides, although not all of them lived in the US.
Despite integration, Hispanic Americans managed to retain their culture. They were most successful in those areas where they had retained some measure of political or economic power, where Jim Crow laws imposed a forced isolation or where they made up a significant percentage of the community.
Recent immigration
[
edit
]
Following the Spanish?American War, in 1898 Spain ceded Puerto Rico and Cuba to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. Cuba gained independence from the United States in 1902 and Puerto Rico became a commonwealth of the United States in 1917, so that Puerto Ricans were able to emigrate to the United States easily because of their American citizenship. During the 20th century many Hispanic immigrants came to United States fleeing the poverty, violence, and military dictatorships of Latin America. Ironically, the United States government was responsible for many of these dictatorships because of its foreign policy, which frequently involved covert as well as overt interventions such as military coups that toppled democratically-elected presidents. The U.S. supported the ensuing regimes, which arrested, tortured, exiled, and murdered civilians opposed to them.
[27]
Those who fled these countries emigrated mainly to Southwest, New York, New Jersey, Illinois and Florida, although the Hispanics emigrated through the country. Most Hispanics who immigrate to the United States are Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans and Salvadorans. There are currently over a million descendants of the last four groups in the United States. Throughout the twentieth century, the Hispanic population has been characterized by a high population growth, both for the emigration and the birth rate.
Historical demographics
[
edit
]
Hispanic population in the United States
1850?2010
[28]
[29]
Year
|
Population (millions)
|
%±
|
Percent of the
U.S. population
|
1850
|
116,943
|
?
|
0.6%
|
1860
|
155,000
[30]
|
?
|
|
1870
|
200,000
|
?
|
|
1880
|
393,555
|
?
|
0.8%
|
1890
|
401,491
(Mexican Americans)
[31]
|
+336.5%
|
|
1900
|
503,189
|
+27.8%
|
0.7%
|
1910
|
797,994
|
+58.6%
|
0.9%
|
1920
|
1,286,154
|
+61.2%
|
1.2%
|
1930
|
1.7
|
+28.6%
|
1.3%
|
1940
|
2,021,820
|
+22.2%
|
1.5%
|
1950
|
3,231,409
|
+59.8%
|
2.1%
|
1960
|
5,814,784
|
+79.9%
|
3.2%
|
1970
|
8,920,940
|
+53.4%
|
4.4%
|
1980
|
14,608,673
|
+63.8%
|
6.4%
|
1990
|
22,354,059
|
+53.0%
|
9.0%
|
2000
|
35,305,818
|
+57.9%
|
12.5%
|
2010
|
50,477,594
|
+43.0%
|
16.3%
|
2020
|
62,080,044
|
+43.0%
|
18.7%
|
Projections
2030?2060
[32]
Year
|
Population (millions)
|
%±
|
Percent of the
U.S. population
|
2030
|
78.7
|
+22.1%
|
21.9%
|
2040
|
94.9
|
+19.2%
|
25.0%
|
2050
|
111.7
|
+22.7%
|
27.9%
|
2060
|
128.8
|
+22.7%
|
30.6%
|
See also
[
edit
]
|
---|
Region of settlement
Region of origin
|
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Pena, Lorenzo. Un puente juridico entre Iberoamerica y Europa:la Constitucion espanola de 1812. Instituto de Filosofia del CSIC
The first thing there is to understand is that in a good measure, the Courts of Cadiz created a new state, the Spanish state.[...]there had never been a proclamation of a Kingdom of Spain, so that difficulties always arose upon the legal value of the very frequent references to 'Spain' in the legal texts of the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The Spanish sovereigns had always refused the advice [...] in the sense of establishing a United Kingdom of Spain, preferring to see themselves as vertices of converging scattered kingdoms, at least in theory. Even the Napoleonic Bayonne Constitution of 1808 did not proclaime a kingdom of Spain, but a 'Crown of Spain and the Indies'. On the other hand, 'Spain' was merely a geographical name, a simple romance version of 'Hispania', whereby its use, in principle, should not have to go beyond the designations ‘Galia’, ‘Germania’[...]
- ^
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911).
"Alaska §
History
"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 477.
- ^
Rowland, L. S, 1990. "Window on the Atlantic. South Carolina Department of Archives
- ^
Laird W. Bergad, and Herbert S. Klein. Hispanics in the United States : a Demographic, Social, and Economic History, 1980?2005. Cambridge UP, 2010. eBook Collection (EBSCOhost), lpclibrary.idm.oclc.org/login?url=
https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=344670&site=ehost-live
.
- ^
Goodwin, 152.
- ^
Edited by Loretto Dennis Szucs and Sandra Hargreaves Luebking.
The Source: A Guidebook to American Genealogy
. Published in 1984. Third Edition, 2006. Ancestry. Page 361.
- ^
U.S 1790 Census
- ^
Ricardo Kaulessar (October 12, 2021).
Records shed light on earliest residents of Hispanic, Latino ancestry in NYC, Delaware
. Published on
northjersey.com
- ^
Christopher Hodapp
(2007).
Solomon's Builders: Freemasons, Founding Fathers and the Secrets of Washington, DC
. Ulysses Press, Berkeley, California. p. 146.
ISBN
9781569754085
.
- ^
Parrado, Emilio A., and William A. Kandel. "Hispanic Population Growth and Rural Income Inequality." Social Forces, vol. 88, no. 3, 2010, p. 1421+. Gale in Context: Opposing Viewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A224989314/OVIC?u=live10669&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=ff0e694e.
- ^
From many strands: ethnic and racial groups in contemporary America
By Stanley Lieberson, Mary C. Waters
- ^
Thomas E. Chavez.
Spain and the Independence of The United States
. An Intrinsic Gift. University of New Mexico, 2002.
- ^
Smith, Hale G., and Marc Gottlob. 1978. "Spanish-Indian Relationships: Synoptic History and Archaeological Evidence, 1500-1763." In
Tacachale: Essays on the Indians of Florida and Southeastern Georgia during the Historic Period.
Edited by Jerald Milanich and Samuel Proctor. Gainesville, Florida: University Presses of Florida.
ISBN
0-8130-0535-3
- ^
U.S. National Park Service official website about Juan Cabrillo.
(retrieved 2006-12-18)
- ^
Information from Monterey County Museum about Vizcaino's voyage and Monterey landing
(retrieved 2006-12-18);
Summary of Vizcaino expedition diary
(retrieved 2006-12-18)
- ^
Bancroft, Hubert Howe (1884-1890)
History of California
, v.4,
The works of Hubert Howe Bancroft
, complete text online
Archived
2012-01-02 at the
Wayback Machine
, p.260
- ^
Simmons, Marc,
The Last Conquistador
Norman: U of OK Press, 1992, pp.96, 111
- ^
Leonard Pitt and Ramon A. Gutierrez,
Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californias, 1846-1890
(1999)
- ^
Chavez-Garcia, Miroslava (2004).
Negotiating Conquest: Gender and Power in California, 1770s to 1880s
. The University of Arizona Press. pp. 123?150.
- ^
"World Book Encyclopedia Online, Reference Books Set & Kids Education"
. Worldbook.com. Archived from
the original
on 2009-04-21
. Retrieved
2012-09-30
.
- ^
"Justice Delayed: Mexican-Americans Win Stolen Oil Rights"
. Commondreams.org. 2000-08-12. Archived from
the original
on 2012-10-08
. Retrieved
2012-09-30
.
- ^
a
b
"American Experience | The Gold Rush | People & Events"
. PBS. 2006-09-13. Archived from
the original
on 2013-12-18
. Retrieved
2012-09-30
.
- ^
Brands, H.W. (2003), pp. 48?53.
- ^
a
b
Carrigan, William D. (2003).
"The lynching of persons of Mexican origin or descent in the United States, 1848 to 1928"
.
Journal of Social History
.
- ^
[1]
Archived
July 12, 2007, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Paraguayan Americans
. Countries and Their Cultures: Paraguayan Americans by Olivia Miller. Retrieved July 21, 2011, to 13:50 pm.
- ^
Blum, William (2014).
Killing Hope
. London: Zed Books. pp. 1?471.
ISBN
9781783601776
.
- ^
"Hispanics in the United States, 1850?1990"
(PDF)
. Latinamericanstudies.org
. Retrieved
2012-09-30
.
- ^
[2]
Archived copy
at the
Library of Congress
(October 19, 2010).
- ^
"Facts on Latinos in America"
. September 18, 2017.
- ^
"Historia Mexicana: LOS EFECTOS DEMOGRAFICOS DE LA REVOLUCION MEXICANA EN ESTADOS UNIDOS"
(PDF)
. 2000. p. 7}.
- ^
"Population Projections ? 2008 National Population Projections: Summary Tables"
. Census.gov. Archived from
the original
on 2008-11-08
. Retrieved
2012-09-30
.
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
In the eighteen century,
Spanish America
and the
Philippines
belonged to the Spanish Crown. So the inhabitants of Latin America and Filipinas were considered "Spanish". Possibly, many of the people registered as "Spanish" en the 1790 Census were from these places. Indeed, some of the Latin Americans living in the former British colonies at end of eighteen century were Venezuelans.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
Surveys
[
edit
]
- Bean, Frank D., and Marta Tienda.
The Hispanic Population of the United States
(1987), statistical analysis of demography and social structure
- Chabran, Richard, and Rafael Chabran.
The Latino Encyclopedia
(6 vol. 1996)
- De Leon, Arnoldo, and Richard Griswold Del Castillo.
North to Aztlan: A History of Mexican Americans in the United States
(2006)
- Gomez, Laura E.
Manifest Destinies: The Making of the Mexican American Race
(2008)
- Gomez-Quinones, Juan.
Mexican American Labor, 1790-1990.
(1994).
- Gonzales, Manuel G.
Mexicanos: A History of Mexicans in the United States
(2nd ed 2009)
excerpt and text search
- Gutierrez, David G. ed.
The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960
(2004) 512pp
excerpt and text search
- Meier, Matt S.
Notable Latino Americans: A Biographical Dictionary
(1997) 431pp; 127 longer biographies
excerpt and text search
- Meier, Matt S.
Mexican American The biographies: A Historical Dictionary, 1836-1987
(1988) 237pp; 270 shortwer biographies
- Ruiz, Vicki L.
From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America
(1998)
- Vargas, Zaragosa.
Crucible of Struggle: A History of Mexican Americans from the Colonial Period to the Present Era
(2010)
- Weber, David J.
Spanish Frontier in North America
(Yale University Press, 1992; brief edition 2009)
- Weber, David J.
New Spain's Far Northern Frontier: Essays on Spain in the American West, 1540-1821
(University of New Mexico Press, 1979).
Historiography
[
edit
]
- Babcock, Matthew. "Territoriality and the Historiography of Early North America."
Journal of American Studies
50.3 (2016): 515-536.
online
[
dead link
]
- Castaneda, Antonia I. "Gender, race, and culture: Spanish-Mexican women in the historiography of frontier California."
Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies
11.1 (1990): 8-20.
- De Leon, Arnoldo, and Carlos E. Cuellar. "Chicanos in the City: A Review of the Monographic Literature,"
The History Teacher
(1996) 29#3 pp. 363-378
in JSTOR
- Garcia, Richard A. "Changing Chicano Historiography,"
Reviews in American History
34.4 (2006) 521-528 in
Project MUSE
- Poyo, Gerald E., and Gilberto M. Hinojosa. "Spanish Texas and borderlands historiography in transition: Implications for United States history."
Journal of American History
75.2 (1988): 393-416
online
.
- Rochin, Refugio I., and Denis N. Valdes, eds.
Voices of a New Chicana/o History.
(2000). 307 pp. 14 articles by scholars
- Ruiz, Vicki L. "Nuestra America: Latino History as United States History,"
Journal of American History,
93 (Dec. 2006), 655?72.
- Weber, David J. "The Spanish legacy in North America and the historical imagination."
Western Historical Quarterly
23.1 (1992): 4-24.
online
- Weber, David J. "The Spanish Borderlands, Historiography Redux."
The History Teacher
(2005) 39#1:43-56
online
.