Christian theological debate
The
history of the Calvinist?Arminian debate
begins in early 17th century in the Netherlands with a
Christian theological
dispute between the followers of
John Calvin
and
Jacobus Arminius
, and continues today among some
Protestants
, particularly
evangelicals
. The debate centers around
soteriology
, or the study of salvation, and includes disputes about
total depravity
,
predestination
, and
atonement
. While the debate was given its
Calvinist
?
Arminian
form in the 17th century, issues central to the debate have been discussed in
Christianity
in some form since
Augustine of Hippo
's disputes with the
Pelagians
in the 5th century.
Theological background
[
edit
]
Augustine and Pelagius
[
edit
]
Sixth-century portrait of
Augustine of Hippo
(354?430) at the
Lateran church
Pelagius
was a British
monk
who journeyed to
Rome
around the year 400 A.D. and was appalled at what he perceived as the improper behavior within churches. To combat this lack of holiness, he preached a Gospel that began with justification through faith alone (it was actually Pelagius, not Luther, who first added the word
alone
to Paul's phrase)
[1]
but finished through human effort and morality. He had read
Augustine
's
Confessions
and believed it to be a fatalistic and pessimistic view of human nature. Pelagius' followers, including
Caelestius
, went further than their teacher and removed justification through faith, setting up the morality- and works-based salvation known as
Pelagianism
. The only historical evidence of the teachings of Pelagius or his followers is found through the writings of his two strongest opponents?Augustine and
Jerome
.
In response to Pelagius, Augustine adopted a theological system that included not only
original sin
(which Pelagius denied), but also a form of
predestination
.
[2]
Some authors maintain that Augustine taught the doctrines of
limited atonement
[3]
and of
irresistible grace
,
[4]
later associated with classic Calvinism; however, others insist that Augustine's writings conflict with these doctrines.
[2]
[5]
Critics maintain that part of Augustine's philosophy might have stemmed from his expertise in Greek philosophy, particularly
Platonism
and
Manichaeism
, which maintained a high view of a man's spirit and low view of a man's body.
[6]
Against the Pelagian notion that man can do everything right, he taught that man could do little right. Thus, he reasoned, man cannot even accept the offer of salvation ? it must be God who chooses for himself individuals to bring to salvation.
A group of Italian bishops, led by Julian, defended the Pelagian view against the Augustinian concept of predestination but was rejected by the
Council of Ephesus
in 431. Later a monastic movement in Southern Gaul (modern-day France) also sought to explain predestination in light of God's foreknowledge, but a flurry of writings from Augustine (
Grace and Free Will,
Correction and Grace,
The Predestination of the Saints
and
The Gift of Perseverance
) helped maintain the papal authority of his doctrines.
Semi-Pelagianism and Semi-Augustinianism
[
edit
]
After the death of Augustine, a more moderate form of Pelagianism persisted, which claimed that man's faith was an act of
free will
unassisted by previous internal grace. The
Second Council of Orange (529)
[7]
was convened to address whether this moderate form of
semi-Pelagianism
could be affirmed, or if the doctrines of Augustine were to be affirmed.
The determination of the Council could be considered "semi-Augustinian".
[8]
[9]
It defined that faith, though a free act, resulted even in its beginnings from the
grace
of God, enlightening the
human mind
and enabling belief.
[10]
[11]
[12]
However, it also denied strict predestination, stating, "We not only do not believe that any are foreordained to evil by the power of God, but even state with utter abhorrence that if there are those who want to believe so evil a thing, they are anathema." The document received papal sanction.
Calvinist
Reformers used the Council's canons to demonstrate that their formulations of original sin and depravity had already been taught much earlier in the church.
Arminian
theologians
[13]
[14]
also refer to the Council of Orange as a historical document that strongly affirms man's depravity and God's
prevenient grace
but does not present grace as irresistible or adhere to a strictly Augustinian view of predestination.
Middle Ages
[
edit
]
Thomas Aquinas
(1225?1274) in a portrait,
c.
1400
, by
Gentile da Fabriano
Augustine's teaching on
divine grace
was considered a touchstone of orthodoxy within the western church throughout the
Middle Ages
.
[
citation needed
]
Nevertheless, within an Augustinian context, theologians continued to debate the precise nature of God and man's participation in salvation, as well as attempting to work out a place for the church's emerging system of
sacraments
in the overall scheme of salvation.
Thomas Aquinas
, the most influential
Catholic
theologian
of the Middle Ages, taught that, from man's fallen state, there were three steps to salvation:
[
citation needed
]
- Infusion of grace (
infusio gratiae
) ? God infuses grace into the human soul ? the Christian now has faith and, with it, the ability to do good ? this step is entirely God's work and is not done by man, and once a man has faith, he can never entirely lose it ? however, faith alone is not enough for salvation;
- Faith formed by charity (
fides caritate formata
) ? with man's
free will
restored, man must now do his best to do good works in order to have a faith formed by charity; and then;
- Condign merit
(
meritum de condigno
) ? God then judges and awards eternal life on the basis of these good works which Aquinas called man's condign merit.
Aquinas believed that by this system, he had reconciled
Ephesians
2:8 ("By grace are ye saved through faith, and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God") and
James
2:20 ("faith without works is dead") and 2:24 ("by works a man is justified and not by faith only"), and had provided an exposition of the Bible's teaching on salvation compatible with Augustine's teachings.
A second stream of medieval thought, commonly referred to as the
Ockhamists
after
William of Ockham
and also including
Duns Scotus
and
Gabriel Biel
rejected
Aquinas’ system
as destroying man's
free will
. The Ockhamists argued that if a man loved God simply because of "infused grace", then man did not love God freely. They argued that before a man received an infusion of grace, man must do his best in a state of nature (i.e. based on man's
reason
and inborn moral sense). They argued that just as God awards eternal life on the basis of man's condign merit for doing his best to do good works after receiving faith as a gift from God, so too, the original infusion of grace was given to man on the basis of "congruent merit", a reward for man's doing his best in a state of nature. (Unlike condign merit, which is fully deserved by man, congruent merit is not fully deserved, and includes a measure of grace on God's part. Congruent merit is therefore also sometimes called "semimerit". According to the Ockhamists, a gracious God awards an individual with congruent merit when he or she does the best that he or she is able to do.)
Aquinas’ followers, commonly referred to as the
Thomists
, accused the
Ockhamists
of
Pelagianism
for basing the infusion of grace on man's works. The Ockhamists defended themselves from charges of Pelagianism by arguing that, in the Ockhamist system, God was not bound to award the infusion of grace on the basis of congruent merit; rather, God's decision to award the infusion of grace on the basis of congruent merit was an entirely gracious act on God's part.
Martin Luther
's condemnation of "justification by works" clearly condemned Ockhamism. Some proponents of
ecumenism
argue that the Thomist view of salvation is not opposed to Luther's view of grace, and, since Ockhamism was rejected as
Semipelagian
by the Catholic Church at the
Council of Trent
, theology of salvation need not pose a bar to Protestant-Catholic reunion. (The major streams of modern Catholic thought on the theology of salvation are Thomism and
Molinism
, a theology developed by
Jesuit
theologian
Luis Molina
in the 16th century and also held today by some Protestants such as
William Lane Craig
and
Alvin Plantinga
.)
However, since the Catholic Church's rejection of
Jansenism
in the bull
Unigenitus
(1713), it has been clear that
Calvinism
could not be accommodated within Catholicism.
Arminianism
, on the other hand, while it might not square entirely with Catholic theologies of salvation, probably could be accommodated within the Catholic Church, a fact which Arminianism's Protestant opponents have often pointed out. (
Augustus Toplady
, for example, famously claimed that Arminianism was the "Road to Rome.")
Martin Luther and Erasmus of Rotterdam
[
edit
]
Desiderius Erasmus
(1466/69?1536) in a 1523 portrait by
Hans Holbein the Younger
Martin Luther
was an
Augustinian
friar in
Erfurt
. In his
Disputation Against
Scholastic
Theology
of 4 September 1517, Luther entered into the medieval debate between the
Thomists
and the
Ockhamists
by attacking the Ockhamist position and arguing that man by nature lacks the ability to do good that the Ockhamists asserted he had (and thus denying that man could do anything to deserve congruent merit). Modern scholars disagree about whether Luther in fact intended to criticize all scholastics in this
Disputation
or if he was concerned only with the Ockhamists. Arguing in favor of a broader interpretation is the fact that Luther went on to criticize the use of
Aristotle
in theology (Aristotle was the basis of
Thomist
as well as
Ockhamist
theology). If this is the case, it is likely that Luther saw Aquinas'
fides caritate formata
as merely a more cautious form of Pelagianism (or as
Semipelagianism
).
[
citation needed
]
Luther continued to defend these views. In 1520,
Pope Leo X
issued the
papal bull
Exsurge Domine
, which condemned a position which Luther had maintained at the 1518
Heidelberg Disputation
, namely that "After
the Fall
free will
is something in name only and when it does what is in it, it sins mortally." Luther subsequently defended the proposition in his
Defense and Explanation of All the Articles Unjustly Condemned by the Roman Bull of Leo X
(1520), in the process stating that "
free will
is really a fiction...with no reality, because it is in no man's power to plan any evil or good. As the article of
Wycliffe
, condemned at
Constance
, teaches: everything takes place by absolute necessity."
Desiderius Erasmus
of
Rotterdam
, though first sympathetic to Luther, reacted negatively to what he saw as Luther's
determinism
. In his
De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio
(
A Disquisition on Freedom of the Will
) (1524), Erasmus caricatures the limitations of free will that he saw Luther espousing. Though at times in the Diatribe, Erasmus sounded like an Ockhamist, for the most part he attempted to espouse a middle course between
grace
and
free will
, attempting to avoid on the one hand the errors of the Pelagians and the Ockhamists, and on the other hand, the "
Manichaean
" error of Luther and other strict Augustinians.
Luther responded with his
De Servo Arbitrio
(
On the Bondage of the Will
) (1525) in which he argued that man was not free to do good. Rather, man's fallen nature is in bondage to
sin
and to
Satan
and man can only do evil. The only way an individual can be saved is if God freely chooses to give that person the gift of faith. Luther's position in
On the Bondage of the Will
became the position adopted by the
Protestant movement
.
Jacobus Arminius and the Synod of Dort
[
edit
]
Jacobus Arminius
enrolled at
Leiden University
, and after five years of education traveled in the early 1580s to study in
Geneva
.
Theodore Beza
was the chairman of theology at the university there. Beza later defended Arminius by saying "let it be known to you that from the time Arminius returned to us from Basel, his life and learning both have so approved themselves to us, that we hope the best of him in every respect…"
[15]
In late 1587, at the age of 28, Arminius returned to
Amsterdam
to fulfill his desire to be a pastor.
Arminius' entry into the
predestination
debate in Amsterdam was two years after his return, when he was asked by city officials to refute a modified form of Beza's
Lapsarianism
. According to historic tradition, Arminius' study of the Scriptures led him to the conclusion that the Bible did not support Calvinism.
[16]
Other scholars believe that Arminius never accepted Beza's views, even while a student at Geneva.
[17]
Arminius avoided adding to the controversy apart from two incidents regarding sermons on Romans 7 and Romans 9.
When Arminius received his doctorate and professorship of theology at Leiden in 1603, the debate over Calvinism came back to life. Conflicts over predestination had appeared early in the Dutch Reformed Church, but "these had been of a local nature, occurring between two fellow ministers, for instance, but since the appointment of Jacobus Arminius as a professor at Leyden University (1603) the strife had moved to the place where the education of future ministers took place."
[18]
Arminius taught that
Calvinist predestination
and
unconditional election
made God the author of evil. Instead, Arminius insisted, God's election was an
election
of believers
and therefore was
conditioned on faith
. Furthermore, Arminius argued, God's exhaustive foreknowledge did not require a doctrine of
determinism
.
[19]
Arminius and his followers believed that a national
synod
should confer, to win tolerance for their views. His opponents in the
Dutch Reformed Church
maintained the authority of local synods and denied the necessity of a national convention. When the
States of Holland
called together the parties, Arminius's opponents, led by his colleague
Franciscus Gomarus
, accused him not only of the teaching of the doctrines characteristic of Arminianism as it would become (see below), but also of errors on the authority of Scripture, the Trinity, original sin, and works salvation. These charges Arminius denied, citing agreement with both Calvin and Scripture.
[20]
Arminius was acquitted of any doctrinal error. He then accepted an invitation to a "friendly conference" with Gomarus
[21]
but his health caused the conference to end prematurely. Two months later, on 19 October 1609, Jacobus Arminius died.
The Remonstrants and Calvinist reaction
[
edit
]
After the death of Arminius, the Hague court chaplain,
Johannes Wtenbogaert
, one of the professor's followers "who dogmatically and theologically was on one line with him, but who in the field of Church politics was a much more radical supporter of state influence championed his cause".
[18]
This was seen as a betrayal on Gomarus' side, for earlier in his career (as a minister of Utrecht) Wtenbogaert "had resisted state influence with all his might".
[18]
Gradually Arminian-minded candidates for ordination into the ministry ran into ever greater difficulties. In their classes examinations, not only was subscription to the Dutch Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism demanded (which most were willing to do), "but they were asked questions that were formulated in such a way that ambiguous answers were no longer possible."
[18]
In reaction to this growing pressure Wtenbogaert drew up a petition to the State General, called a
Remonstrance
in late 1609, early 1610. The "Remonstrants" highlighted five aspects of their theology: (1) election was
conditional
on foreseen faith; (2) Christ's atonement was
unlimited
in extent; (3)
total depravity
; (4)
prevenient and resistible grace
; and (5) necessity of perseverance and the possibility of
apostasy
. The Remonstrants first expressed an uncertainty about the possibility of apostasy.
They removed it latter in the document they presented officially at the Synod of Dort,
The Opinion of The Remonstrants
(1618), holding to
conditional preservation of the saints
.
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt
(1547?1619), political leader of the
Remonstrants
Forty-four ministers (mostly from the province of Holland) signed onto the Remonstrance, and on 14 January 1610 it was submitted to the Grand Pensionary, Johan van Oldenbarnevelt. (Due to this document the followers of Arminius became known as Remonstrants.) Oldenbarnevelt held onto the Remonstrance for an unusually long period and it was not until June 1610 that it was submitted in an altered form to the States of Holland. "The States sent the five articles to all classes, forbidding them to go 'higher' in their examinations of ordinands than what was expressed in the articles. Needless to say, most classes did not take the slightest notice of this prohibition."
[18]
In another attempt to avoid a provincial synod, the States held The Hague Conference which lasted from 11 March to 20 May 1611 (with intermissions). It was at this conference that the delegates of Arminius' opponents submitted a response to the Remonstrance, called the Counter-Remonstrance (from which the name Contra- or Counter-Remonstrants was given them).
Leading influences among Arminius' followers (now called
Remonstrants
) were Arminius' close friend and
Roman Catholic
-turned-
Reformed
pastor Johannes Wtenbogaert, lawyer
Hugo Grotius
, and a scholar named
Simon Episcopius
. Due to the Remonstrants’ view of the supremacy of civil authorities over church matters, King
James I of England
came out in support of the Remonstrance (later he would join with their opponents against
Conrad Vorstius
).
Behind the theological debate lay a political one between
Prince Maurice
, a strong military leader, and his former mentor
Johan van Oldenbarnevelt
, Grand Pensionary of Holland and personification of civil power. Maurice, who had Calvinist leanings, desired war with Holland's enemy, Roman Catholic Spain. Oldenbarnevelt, along with Arminius and his followers, desired peace.
Numerous historians hold that many of the civic officials that sided with the Remonstrants did so because of their shared position of State supremacy over the Church and not because of other doctrinal ideas, saying "the alliance between the regents and the Remonstrants during the years of the Truce is merely a coalition suited to the occasion, not the result of principal agreement...the magistracy of Delft was Counter-Remonstrant-minded, but in the States of Holland the city supported Oldenbarnevelt's policy regarding the convocation of a National Synod [to avoid calling one]. Incidentally, suspectedly Calvinistic opinions went together in Oldenbarnevelt's person."
[18]
In the years after Arminius' death, Maurice became convinced that Oldenbarnevelt (and by association, Arminians) had strong Catholic sympathies and were working to deliver Holland to Spain. As insurance, Maurice and his militia systematically and forcibly replaced Remonstrant magistrates with Calvinist ones.
[24]
Thus, when the State General called for a synod in 1618, its outcome was predetermined. Oldenbarnevelt and Grotius were arrested, and the synod, held at
Dordrecht
(Dort), was convened.
This
Synod of Dort
included Calvinist representatives from Great Britain, Switzerland, Germany, and France, though Arminians were denied acceptance. Three Arminian delegates from Utrecht managed to gain seats, but were soon forcibly ejected and replaced with Calvinist alternates.
[25]
The Synod was a six versus six style of representation that lasted over six months with 154 meetings. The synod ultimately ruled that Arminius' teachings were heretical, reaffirming the
Belgic Confession
and
Heidelberg Catechism
as its orthodox statements of doctrine. One of the results of the synod was the formation of the
five points of Calvinism
in direct response to the
five articles of the Remonstrants
.
Robert Picirilli gives this summary of the aftermath of the Synod of Dort:
"Punishment for the Remonstrants, now officially condemned as heretics and therefore under severe judgement of both church and state, was severe. All Arminian pastors?some 200 of them?were deprived of office; any who would not agree to be silent were banished from the country. Spies were paid to hunt down those suspected of returning to their homeland. Some were imprisoned, among them Grotius; but he escaped and fled the country. Five days after the synod was over, Oldenbarnevelt was beheaded.
[26]
Somewhat later, after Maurice died, the Remonstrants were accorded toleration by the state and granted the freedom to follow their religion in peace, to build churches and schools. The Remonstrant Theological Seminary was instituted in Amsterdam, and Episcopius and Grotius were among its first professors. Today both the seminary and the church have shifted from their founders' theology.
[27]
Seventeenth century English politics
[
edit
]
Early
Stuart
society was religious, and religion at that time was political.
King James I
managed religious conflicts for most of the 1610s, but most Protestants maintained a fear of
Catholicism
. Though Arminians were Protestant, they were perceived as being less antagonistic to Catholicism than the Calvinists were. James I initially moved to keep them out of his realm, and supported the official position of the
Synod of Dort
.
In 1618, the
Thirty Years' War
began. It was a religious war, and many of James's subjects (particularly in Parliament) wanted his kingdom to go to war on the side of the king's son-in-law,
Frederick V, Elector Palatine
. James, however, preferred diplomacy. The loudest of the supporters for war were
Puritans
, a term presenting difficulties of definition but who doctrinally were in general orthodox Calvinists. Some scholars believe that the Arminians' support for the king's efforts to prevent war led to him promoting a number of them in order to balance out the Puritans.
[
citation needed
]
Others argue that these promotions were simply the result of meritocratic considerations: 'James promoted Arminians because they were scholarly, diligent and able men in their diocese.'
[28]
In 1625, James I died, leaving the throne to his son,
Charles I
.
Charles I supported the Arminians, and continued the trend of promoting them; Charles tended to promote only Arminians.
[29]
The religious changes which Charles imposed on his subjects, in the form of
Laudianism
, were identified (rightly or wrongly) with Arminian theology.
[
citation needed
]
They brought him into direct conflict with the Scottish
Presbyterian
Calvinists of the
Church of Scotland
. The resulting
Bishops' Wars
were a trigger for the
English Civil War
, both of them part of the larger
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
which had complex roots, among which religious beliefs were a major factor.
Early Methodism
[
edit
]
George Whitefield
(1714?1770) collaborated with
John Wesley
in the founding of Methodism, but remained a Calvinist and broke with Wesley when Wesley became an Arminian.
These theological issues played a divisive part in the early history of
Methodism
in the 18th century. Heated discussions on Arminianism took place between Methodist ministers
John Wesley
and
George Whitefield
. From 1740 Wesley broke with Calvinism. His position caused initially the rupture with the Welsh
Calvinistic Methodists
under
Howell Harris
in 1742?1743; and then the creation of the
Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion
in 1756, about the same time when Wesley broke with
James Hervey
. In the 1770s a sharp debate occurred between Wesley and
Augustus Montague Toplady
.
[30]
Wesley was a champion of the teaching of Arminius, defending his
soteriology
in a periodical entitled
The Arminian
and writing articles such as
Predestination Calmly Considered
. He defended Arminius against charges of
semi-Pelagianism
, holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the
determinism
that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the
ability to lose salvation
. Whitefield debated Wesley on every point (except for their agreement on total depravity) but did not introduce any additional elements into the Calvinists' conclusions set forth at Westminster.
[
citation needed
]
Denominational Views
[
edit
]
Protestant denominations
[
edit
]
To this day, Methodism and offshoots of the denomination:
Pentecostals
, and
Third Wave
, along with
General Baptists
, usually are the ones to subscribe to Arminianism, while
Presbyterians
,
Reformed Churches
,
Reformed Baptists
, and others subscribe to Calvinism. Largely because of its origins in
Germany
and
Scandinavia
rather than the
British Isles
or Holland,
Lutheranism
was uninvolved in the dispute, and official Lutheran doctrine does not fully support either group, preferring instead its own doctrinal formulations about the relation of human freedom to divine sovereignty. This is also true of
Primitive Baptist
belief.
Restorationist
fellowships are customarily
free will
in their
soteriology
. Within this trend,
Churches of Christ
are prone to cite Biblical passages in support of the view while often intensely locked in contention with
Presbyterians
and (usually Calvinistic) Baptists. The doctrinal components, in small towns particularly in the United States, often ally the Churches of Christ with their
Methodist
neighbors on opposition to
"once-saved-always-saved" doctrine
despite the similarity between Churches of Christ and Baptists on
immersion
baptism.
Roman Catholic views
[
edit
]
While most
Roman Catholic
theologians rejected a strict doctrine of
double predestination
, a minority in the early sixteenth century saw it as consistent with their Augustinian heritage.
Post-reformation Roman Catholicism has remained largely outside the debate, although
Thomist
and
Molinist
views continue within the church.
Augustinian theodicy
, including those elements wherein Calvin was influenced by
Augustine of Hippo
, continues to be the prevalent
soteriology
in Roman Catholicism. Also,
Jansenism
has been seen by many as similar to
Calvinist
doctrine, and was condemned as such by the Catholic Church in the late 17th century.
Eastern Orthodox views
[
edit
]
A Synod of
Eastern Orthodox
Churches was called in Jerusalem in 1672 to refute attempted encroachments of Protestant Calvinism. The
Synod of Jerusalem (1672)
also referred to as
The Confession of Dositheus
in 1672,
[32]
strongly rejected Calvinistic formulations and named them heresy. In part, it stated,
We believe the most good God to have from eternity predestinated unto glory those whom He hath chosen, and to have consigned unto condemnation those whom He hath rejected; but not so that He would justify the one, and consign and condemn the other without cause....since He foreknew the one would make a right use of their free-will, and the other a wrong, He predestinated the one, or condemned the other.
[33]
In the same document, the synod renounced Calvin by name and pronounced an anathema upon anyone teaching that God predestined anyone to evil or Hell.
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
Pawson, David
Once Saved, Always Saved?
(London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1996) p. 89.
- ^
a
b
Portalie, Eugene (1913).
"Teaching of St. Augustine of Hippo"
. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.).
Catholic Encyclopedia
. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^
Anderson, David R. (2010).
Free Grace Soteriology
. Zulon Press. p. 92.
- ^
Charles W. Eliot, ed. (1909).
"Introduction"
.
Confessions of St. Augustine
. Collier & son. p. 4
. Retrieved
2 February
2011
.
- ^
"CHURCH FATHERS: Catechizing of the Uninstructed (St. Augustine)"
.
www.newadvent.org
. 18 (30)
. Retrieved
16 May
2023
.
For He ... gave freedom of will to men, in order that they might worship God not of slavish necessity but with ingenuous inclination....
- ^
Pawson, p. 91.
- ^
Second Council of Orange text:
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/orange.txt
- ^
"The Medieval Experience: Foundations of Western Cultural Singularity", By Francis Oakley (University of Toronto Press, 1 January 1988), page 64
- ^
"An Exploration of Christian Theology", Don Thorsen (Baker Books, 2007), 20.3.4
- ^
Cf. Second Council of Orange ch. 5?7;
H.J. Denzinger
Enchiridion Symbolorum et Definitionum
, p. 375?377
- ^
Pickar, C. H. (1981) [1967]. "Faith".
The New Catholic Encyclopedia
. Vol. 5. Washington D.C. p. 797.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^
Olson, Roger E. (20 August 2009).
Arminian Theology: Myths and Realities
. InterVarsity Press. p. 81.
- ^
Stanglin, Keith D.; McCall, Thomas H. (15 November 2012).
Jacob Arminius: Theologian of Grace
. Oxford University Press. p. 153.
- ^
Bangs, Carl
Arminius: A Study in the Dutch Reformation
(Nashville: Abingdon, 1971) pp. 73?74,
ISBN
978-0-687-01744-7
.
- ^
Wynkoop, Mildred Bangs
Foundations of Wesleyan-Arminian Theology
(Kansas City: Beacon Hill Press, 1967), pp. 47–49,
ISBN
978-0-8341-0254-5
.
- ^
Bangs, pp. 138?141.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
Edwin Rabbie (1995).
Hugo Grotius: Ordinum Hollandiae ac Westfrisiae Pietas, 1613
. Brill.
- ^
Picirilli, Robert
Grace, Faith, and Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation ? Calvinism and Arminianism
(Nashville: Randall House, 2002) pp. 10?11,
ISBN
978-0-89265-648-6
.
- ^
Picirilli, pp. 11?12.
- ^
Picirilli, pp. 14?16.
- ^
Picirilli, pp. 14?16.
- ^
Picirilli, pp. 15?16.
- ^
Picirilli, p. 16.
- ^
Platt, Frederic "Arminianism",
Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics
, ed.
James Hastings
(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, n.d.) 1:811.
- ^
Schaff, Philip
The Creeds of Christendom, Volume III: The Creeds of the Evangelical Protestant Churches
(Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1889)
- ^
Carrier, Irene
James VI and I, King of Great Britain
(Cambridge University Press, 1998),
ISBN
978-0-521-49947-7
.
- ^
"Wesley, John"
.
Dictionary of National Biography
. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885?1900.
- ^
"Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine, from the Bible to the Present," John H. Leith (Westminster John Knox Press, 1 January 1982), Page 485
- ^
The Acts and Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem: Sometimes Called the Council of Bethlehem, Holden Under Dositheus, Patriarch of Jerusalem in 1672, (Baker), 1899
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