Chadian politician and convicted war criminal
Hissene Habre
(
Arabic
:
???? ????
?usa?n ?abr?
,
Chadian Arabic
:
pronounced
[hi?s?n
?habre]
;
French pronunciation:
[is?n
ab?e]
; 13 August 1942 ? 24 August 2021),
[1]
also spelled
Hissen Habre
, was a Chadian politician and convicted
war criminal
who served as the 5th
president of Chad
from 1982 until he was deposed in 1990.
A Muslim from northern Chad, Habre joined
FROLINAT
rebels in the first
Chadian Civil War
against the southern-dominated Chadian government. Due to a rift with fellow rebel commander
Goukouni Oueddei
, Habre and his
Armed Forces of the North
rebel army briefly defected to
Felix Malloum
's government against Oueddei before turning against Malloum, who resigned in 1979. Habre was then given the position of Minister of Defense under Chad's new
transitional coalition government
, with Oueddei as President. Their alliance quickly collapsed, and Habre's forces overthrew Oueddei in 1982.
Having become the country's new president, Habre created a
one-party dictatorship
ruled by his
National Union for Independence and Revolution
notorious for widespread human rights abuses. He was brought to power with the support of France and the United States, who provided training, arms, and financing throughout his rule due to his opposition to Libyan leader
Muammar Gaddafi
.
[3]
He led the country during the
Libyan-Chadian conflict
, culminating in victory during the
Toyota War
from 1986 to 1987 with
French support
. He was overthrown three years later in the
1990 Chadian coup d'etat
by
Idriss Deby
and fled into exile in
Senegal
.
In May 2016, Habre was found guilty by an
international tribunal in Senegal
of human-rights abuses, including rape,
sexual slavery
, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people, and sentenced to life in prison.
[4]
He was the first former head of state to be convicted for human rights abuses in the court of another nation.
[5]
He died on 24 August 2021, after testing positive for
COVID-19
.
[6]
[7]
Early life
[
edit
]
Habre was born in 1942 in
Faya-Largeau
, northern Chad, then a
colony of France
, into a family of
shepherds
. He was a member of the
Anakaza
branch of the Daza
Gourane
ethnic group, which is itself a branch of the
Toubou
ethnic group.
[8]
After primary schooling, he obtained a post in the French colonial administration, where he impressed his superiors and gained a scholarship to study in France at the
Institute of Higher International Studies
in Paris. He completed a university degree in political science in Paris, and returned to Chad in 1971. He also obtained several other degrees and earned his Doctorate from the Institute. After a further brief period of government service as a deputy prefect,
[9]
he visited
Tripoli
and joined the
National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT)
where he became a commander in the Second Liberation Army of FROLINAT along with
Goukouni Oueddei
. After
Abba Siddick
assumed the leadership of FROLINAT, the Second Liberation Army, first under Oueddei's command and then under Habre's, split from FROLINAT and became the
Command Council of the Armed Forces of the North
(CCFAN). In 1976 Oueddei and Habre quarreled and Habre split his newly named
Armed Forces of the North (
Forces Armees du Nord
or FAN)
from Goukouni's followers who adopted the name of
People's Armed Forces
(
Forces Armees Populaires
or FAP).
[10]
Habre first came to international attention when a group under his command attacked the town of
Bardai
in
Tibesti
, on 21 April 1974, and took three Europeans hostage, with the intention of ransoming them for money and arms. The captives were a German physician,
Christoph Staewen
(whose wife Elfriede was killed in the attack), and two French citizens,
Francoise Claustre
, an archeologist, and
Marc Combe
, a development worker. Staewen was released on 11 June 1974 after significant payments by West German officials.
[11]
[12]
[13]
Combe escaped in 1975, but despite the intervention of the French Government, Claustre (whose husband was a senior French government official) was not released until 1 February 1977. Habre split with Oueddei, partly over this hostage-taking incident (which became known as the "Claustre affair" in France).
[9]
Rise to power
[
edit
]
In August 1978 Habre was given the posts of
Prime Minister of Chad
and
Vice President of Chad
as part of an alliance with Gen.
Felix Malloum
.
[9]
: 27
[14]
: 353
However, the power-sharing alliance did not last long. In February 1979 Habre's forces and the national army under Malloum fought in
N'Djamena
. The fighting effectively left Chad without a national government. Several attempts were made by other nations to resolve the crisis, resulting in a new national government in November 1979 in which Habre was appointed Minister of Defense.
[14]
: 353
However, fighting resumed within a matter of weeks. In December 1980 Habre was driven into exile in
Sudan
.
[14]
: 354
In 1982 he resumed his fight against the Chadian government. FAN won control of N'Djamena in June and appointed Habre as head of state.
[9]
: 30, 151
Rule
[
edit
]
Habre seized power in Chad and ruled from 1982 until he was deposed in 1990 by Idriss Deby. Habre's one-party
regime
, like many others before his, was characterized by widespread human rights abuses and atrocities. He denied killing and torturing tens of thousands of his opponents, although in 2012 the United Nations'
International Court of Justice
(ICJ) ordered Senegal to put him on trial or extradite him to face justice overseas.
[15]
Following his rise to power Habre created a
secret police
force known as the Documentation and Security Directorate (DDS), under which his opponents were tortured and executed.
[16]
Some methods of torture commonly used by the DDS included burning the body of the detainee with incandescent objects, spraying gas into their eyes, ears and nose, forced swallowing of water, and forcing the mouths of detainees around the
exhaust pipes
of running automobiles.
[17]
Habre's government also periodically engaged in
ethnic cleansing
against groups such as the
Sara
,
Hadjerai
and the
Zaghawa
, killing and arresting group members en masse when it was perceived that their leaders posed a threat to the regime.
[16]
Habre fled, with $11 million of public money, to Senegal after being overthrown in 1990.
[5]
He was placed under house arrest in 2005 until his arrest in 2013. He was accused of war crimes and torture during his eight years in power in Chad, where rights groups say that some 40,000 people were killed under his rule.
[18]
Human Rights Watch
claims that 1,200 were killed and 12,000 were tortured, and a domestic Chadian commission of inquiry claims that as many as 40,000 were killed and that more than 200,000 were subjected to torture. Human Rights Watch later dubbed Habre "Africa's
Pinochet
."
[19]
[20]
[21]
War with Libya
[
edit
]
Libya invaded Chad in July 1980, occupying and annexing the
Aozou Strip
. The United States and France responded by aiding Chad in an attempt to contain Libya's regional ambitions under Libyan leader
Muammar al-Gaddafi
.
[14]
: 354
In 1980, the unity government signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation with Libya. The treaty allowed the Chadian government to call on Libya for assistance if Chad's independence or internal security was threatened.
[9]
: 191
The
Libyan army
was soon assisting the government forces, under Goukouni, and ousted FAN from much of northern Chad, including N'Djamena on 15 December.
[9]
: 191
Libyan troops withdrew in November 1981. Without their support, Goukouni's government troops were weakened and Habre capitalized on this and his FAN militia entered N'Djamena on 7 June 1982.
[9]
: 191
[14]
: 354?355
In 1983, Libyan troops returned to Chad and remained in the country, supporting Goukouni's militia, until 1988.
[9]
: 193?198
[14]
: 354?356
Despite this victory, Habre's government was weak, and strongly opposed by members of the
Zaghawa
ethnic group. A rebel offensive in November 1990, which was led by
Idriss Deby
, a Zaghawa former army commander who had participated in a plot against Habre in 1989 and subsequently fled to Sudan, defeated Habre's forces. The French chose not to assist Habre on this occasion, allowing him to be ousted; it is possible that they actively aided Deby. Explanation and speculation regarding the reasons for France's abandonment of Habre include the adoption of a policy of non-interference in intra-Chadian conflicts, dissatisfaction with Habre's unwillingness to move towards multiparty democracy, and favoritism by Habre towards U.S.
rather than French companies with regard to oil development. Habre fled to
Cameroon
, and the rebels entered N'Djamena on 2 December 1990; Habre subsequently went into exile in Senegal.
[22]
Support of the U.S. and France
[
edit
]
In the 1980s, the United States was pivotal in bringing Hissene Habre to power, seeing him as a stalwart defense against expansion by Libya's Muammar Qaddafi, and therefore provided critical military support to his insurgency and then to his government, even as it committed widespread and systematic human rights violations?violations of which, as this report shows, many in the US government were aware.
?
Human Rights Watch
[23]
The United States and France supported Habre, seeing him as a bulwark against the Gaddafi government in neighboring
Libya
. Under President
Ronald Reagan
, the United States gave covert
CIA
paramilitary support to help Habre take power and remained one of Habre's strongest allies throughout his rule, providing his regime with massive amounts of military aid.
[24]
The United States also used a clandestine base in Chad to train captured Libyan soldiers whom it was organizing into an anti-Qaddafi force.
[25]
"The CIA was so deeply involved in bringing Habre to power I can't conceive they didn't know what was going on," said
Donald Norland
, U.S. ambassador to Chad from 1979 to 1981. "But there was no debate on the policy and virtually no discussion of the wisdom of doing what we did."
[3]
Documents obtained by
Human Rights Watch
show that the United States provided Habre's DDS with training, intelligence, arms, and other support despite knowledge of its atrocities. Records discovered in the DDS' meticulous archives describe training programs by U.S.
instructors for DDS agents and officials, including a course in the United States that was attended by some of the DDS' most feared torturers. According to the
Chadian Truth Commission
, the United States also provided the DDS with monthly infusions of monetary aid and financed a regional network of intelligence networks code-named "Mosaic" that Chad used to pursue suspected opponents of Habre's regime even after they fled the country.
[25]
In the summer of 1983, when Libya invaded northern Chad and threatened to topple Habre, France sent paratroops with air support, while the Reagan administration provided two
AWACS
electronic surveillance planes to coordinate air cover. By 1987 Gaddafi's forces had retreated.
[9]
: 199?200
[14]
: 355?356
"Habre was a remarkably able man with a brilliant sense of how to play the outside world," a former senior U.S. official said. "He was also a bloodthirsty tyrant and torturer. It is fair to say we knew who and what he was and chose to turn a blind eye."
[3]
Legal proceedings
[
edit
]
Allegations of crimes against humanity
[
edit
]
Human rights groups hold Habre responsible for the killing of thousands of people, but the exact number is unknown.
[26]
Killings included massacres against ethnic groups in the south (1984), against the
Hadjerai
(1987), and against the
Zaghawa
(1989). Human Rights Watch charged him with having authorized tens of thousands of political murders and physical
torture
.
[27]
Habre had been called "the African Pinochet,"
[28]
[29]
[30]
in reference to former Chilean dictator
Augusto Pinochet
.
[28]
Habre would personally sign death warrants and oversee torture sessions, and was accused of personally participating in torture and rape.
[31]
According to some leading experts, the tribunal that judges him constituted an "internationalized tribunal", even if it is the most 'national' within this category".
[26]
The government of
Idriss Deby
established a
Commission of Inquiry into the Crimes and Misappropriations Committed by Ex-President Habre, His Accomplices and/or Accessories
in 1990, which reported that 40,000 people had been killed, but did not follow up on its recommendations.
[32]
[33]
Initial trial attempts
[
edit
]
Between 1993 and 2003, Belgium had
universal jurisdiction
legislation (the Belgian
War Crimes Law
) allowing the most serious violations of human rights to be tried in national as well as international courts, without any direct connection to the country of the alleged perpetrator, the victims or where the crimes took place.
[26]
Despite the repeal of the legislation, investigations against Habre went ahead and in September 2005 he was indicted for crimes against humanity, torture, war crimes, and other human rights violations.
[26]
Senegal, where Habre had been in exile for 17 years,
[34]
had Habre under nominal house arrest in
Dakar
.
[35]
On 17 March 2006, the
European Parliament
demanded that Senegal turn over Habre to Belgium to be tried. Senegal did not comply, and it at first refused
extradition
demands from the
African Union
which arose after Belgium asked to try Habre. The
Chadian Association for the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights
expressed its approval of the decision.
[36]
If he had been turned over, he would have become the first former dictator to be extradited by a third-party country to stand trial for human rights abuses. In 2007, Senegal set up its own special war-crimes court to try Habre under pressure from the African Union.
[34]
On 8 April 2008, the
National Assembly of Senegal
voted to amend the nation's
constitution
to clear the way for Habre to be prosecuted in Senegal;
[37]
[38]
Ibrahima Gueye was appointed trial coordinator in May 2008. A joint session of the National Assembly and the
Senate
voted in July 2008 to approve a bill empowering Senegalese courts to try people for crimes committed in other countries and for crimes that were committed more than ten years beforehand; this made it constitutionally possible to try Habre. Senegalese Minister of Justice
Madicke Niang
appointed four investigative judges on this occasion.
[39]
A 2007 movie by director
Klaartje Quirijns
,
The Dictator Hunter
, tells the story of the activists
Souleymane Guengueng
and Reed Brody who led the efforts to bring Habre to trial.
[40]
Trial in Chad
[
edit
]
On 15 August 2008, a Chadian court sentenced Habre to death
in absentia
[41]
[42]
for war crimes and crimes against humanity
[41]
in connection with allegations that he had worked with rebels inside Chad to oust Deby.
[42]
Francois Serres, a lawyer for Habre, criticized this trial on 22 August for unfairness and secrecy.
[43]
According to Serres, the accusation on which the trial was based was previously unknown and Habre had not received any notification of the trial.
[41]
14 victims filed new complaints with a Senegalese prosecutor on 16 September, accusing Habre of crimes against humanity and torture.
[44]
Trial in Senegal
[
edit
]
The Senegalese government added an amendment in 2008, which would allow Habre to be tried in court. Senegal later changed their position, however, requesting 27 million euros in funding from the international community before going through with the trial. This prompted Belgium to pressure the
International Court of Justice
(ICJ) to force Senegal to either extradite Habre to Belgium or to proceed with the trial.
[26]
The ICJ declined to force extradition, finding that prosecution is an international obligation the violation of which is a wrongful act engaging the responsibility of the State, while extradition is an option offered to the State. Senegal was found to have failed international obligations by 1.) failing to make immediately a preliminary inquiry into the fact relating to the alleged crimes; and 2.) failing to submit the case to its competent authorities for prosecution (obligations according to UN Convention on Torture and Other Cruel, inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984) that Senegal had bound itself to).
[45]
The ICJ rejected Senegal Defenses of insufficient funds and opposition by domestic law, instead unanimously ordering Senegal to submit the case to authorities for prosecution or extradite him without delay.
[46]
In November 2010, the court of justice of the
Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) ruled that Senegal could not hold trial in the matter through local court only,
[26]
and asked for the creation of a special tribunal on the matter of Habre's prosecution.
[26]
In April 2011, after initial reticence, Senegal agreed to the creation of an
ad hoc
tribunal in collaboration with the African Union, the Chadian state and with international funding.
[26]
[47]
Senegal changed their position again however, walking out during discussions on establishing the court on 30 May 2011 without explanation.
[26]
The African union commission on Habre, in preparation for their next summit on 30 June, published a report which urged pressing Senegal to extradite Habre to Belgium.
[48]
On 8 July 2011, Senegal officials announced that Habre would be extradited to Chad on 11 July,
[49]
but this was subsequently halted.
[50]
In July 2012, the ICJ ruled that Senegal must start Habre's trial "without delay".
[26]
Amnesty International
called on Senegal to abide by the ICJ's ruling, calling it "a victory for victims that's long overdue".
[51]
A trial by the
International Criminal Court
(ICC) was ruled out, because the crimes took place before the ICC was fully established in 2002, and its jurisdiction is limited to events that took place after that date.
[52]
In December 2012, the
Parliament of Senegal
passed a law allowing for the creation of an international tribunal in Senegal to try Habre. The judges of the tribunal would be appointed by the
African Union
, and come from elsewhere in Africa.
[43]
On 30 June 2013, Habre was arrested in Senegal by the Senegalese police.
[53]
Chadian President Idriss Deby said of his arrest that it was a step towards "an Africa free of all evil, an Africa stripped of all dictatorships." Senegal's court, set up with the African Union, charged him with crimes against humanity and torture.
[54]
That year he was also
sentenced to death
in absentia
for crimes against humanity by a Chadian court.
[55]
The Tribunal that judged Hissene Habre in Senegal is said to have a huge range of specificities.
[26]
[
clarification needed
]
On 20 July 2015 the trial started. Waiting for the trial to open, Habre shouted: "Down with imperialists. [The trial] is a farce by rotten Senegalese politicians. African traitors. Valet of America". After that Habre was taken out of the courtroom and the trial began without him.
[56]
[57]
On 21 July 2015 Habre's trial was postponed to 7 September 2015, after his lawyers refused to participate in court.
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
Conviction by the Special Tribunal in Senegal
[
edit
]
On 30 May 2016, the
Extraordinary African Chambers
found Habre guilty of rape, sexual slavery, and ordering the killing of 40,000 people during his tenure as Chadian president and sentenced him to life in prison in the
Prison du Cap Manuel
in Senegal.
[62]
The verdict marked the first time an
African Union
-backed court convicted a former ruler for human-rights abuses and the first time that the courts of one country have prosecuted the former ruler of another country for crimes against humanity.
[29]
[63]
[64]
[28]
In May 2017, Judge Ougadeye Wafi upheld Habre's life sentence and all convictions against him, except rape. The court emphasized this was a procedural matter, as the facts the victim offered during her testimony came too late in the proceedings to be included within charges of mass sexual violence committed by his security agents, the convictions for which were upheld.
[65]
On 7 April 2020, a judge in Senegal granted Habre two months' leave from prison, as the jail is being used to hold new detainees in
COVID-19 quarantine
.
[66]
After finishing his home freedom he returned to prison on 7 June.
[67]
[68]
[69]
Death
[
edit
]
Habre died in Senegal on 24 August 2021, a week after his 79th birthday, after being hospitalized in Dakar's main hospital with
COVID-19
.
[70]
[71]
He had fallen ill while in jail a week earlier.
[72]
In a statement, Habre's wife, Fatime Raymonne Habre, confirmed that he had COVID-19.
[73]
He is buried in
Yoff
Muslim cemetery.
[74]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
"Chad's former President Habre, convicted of war crimes, dies in Senegal"
. Reuters. 24 August 2021
. Retrieved
24 August
2021
.
- ^
"Hissene Habre is dead"
.
The Africa Report
. 24 August 2021
. Retrieved
25 August
2021
.
- ^
a
b
c
Douglas Farah (27 November 2000).
"Chad's Torture Victims Pursue Habre in Court"
.
The Washington Post
. Retrieved
3 July
2012
.
- ^
"Hissene Habre: Chad's ex-ruler convicted of crimes against humanity"
. BBC News. 30 May 2016
. Retrieved
27 March
2017
.
- ^
a
b
"Chad's former president has been found guilty of crimes against humanity. Who's next?"
.
The Economist
. 1 June 2016
. Retrieved
2 June
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.
- ^
"Senegal : Hissene Habre est mort ? Jeune Afrique"
.
JeuneAfrique.com
(in French). 24 August 2021
. Retrieved
24 August
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.
- ^
"Deces en prison au Senegal de l'ex-president tchadien Hissene Habre"
.
Le Figaro
(in French). 24 August 2021
. Retrieved
24 August
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.
- ^
Sam C.
Nolutshungu,
Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad
(1996), page 110.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
Collelo, Thomas, ed. (1990) [December 1988].
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(PDF)
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- ^
R. Buijtenhuijs, "Le FROLINAT a l'epreuve du pouvoir", p. 19
- ^
"Entfuhrung: Bedenkliches Zugestandnis aus Bonn: Diplomatische Beziehungen abgebrochen ? Dr. Staewen berichtet uber Gefangenschait im Tschad (Abduction: dubious sanction from Bonn: Diplomatic relations broken off ? Dr. Staewen reported hostage in Chad)"
(PDF)
.
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- ^
"Deutscher Rebellen-Funk"
.
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.
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.
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ISBN
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- ^
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. Retrieved
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.
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a
b
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
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(PDF)
. United States Institute of Peace. 7 May 1992
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
"Former Chad President Hissene Habre detained, may face war crimes charges"
.
GlobalPost
. Retrieved
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.
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. BBC News. 3 July 2006
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
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. BBC News. 27 July 2007
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
"Africa's Pinochet" or the beginning of "Africa's solutions"?
Al Jazeera
- ^
Bernard Lanne, "Chad: Regime Change, Increased Insecurity, and Blockage of Further Reforms",
Political Reform in Francophone Africa
(1997), ed. Clark and Gardinier, page 274 (see also note 26).
- ^
"Enabling a Dictator: The United States and Chad's Hissene Habre 1982-1990"
.
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. 28 June 2016
. Retrieved
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.
- ^
U.S.-Backed Chadian Dictator Hissene Habre Faces War Crimes Trial in Historic Win for His Victims
.
Democracy Now!
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a
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"
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. Retrieved
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.
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Savadogo, Raymond (2014).
"Les Chambres africaines extraordinaires au sein des tribunaux senegalais : quoi de si extraordinaire ?"
.
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.
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a
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. BBC News. 20 July 2015
. Retrieved
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.
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Maclean, Ruth (18 September 2016).
"
'I told my story face to face with Habre': courageous rape survivors make history"
.
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. Retrieved
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.
- ^
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(PDF)
.
usip.org
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.
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. BBC News. 24 August 2021
. Retrieved
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.
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.
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.
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- ^
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. allafrica.com
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.
- ^
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.
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"
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.
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]
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. BBC News
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External links
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