Greek historian and geographer (c.484?c.425 BC)
Herodotus
|
---|
|
A Roman copy (2nd century AD) of a Greek
bust
of Herodotus from the first half of the 4th century BC
|
Born
| c.
484 BC
|
---|
Died
| c.
425
BC (aged approximately 60)
|
---|
Occupation
| Historian
|
---|
Notable work
| Histories
|
---|
Parents
| - Lyxes (father)
- Dryotus (mother)
|
---|
Relatives
| - Theodorus (brother)
- Panyassis
(uncle or cousin)
|
---|
Herodotus
[a]
(
Ancient Greek
:
?ρ?δοτο?
,
romanized
:
H?rodotos
;
c.
484
? c.
425
BC) was a
Greek
historian
and
geographer
from the
Greek city
of
Halicarnassus
, part of the
Persian Empire
(now
Bodrum
, Turkey) and a later citizen of
Thurii
in modern
Calabria
, Italy. He is known for having written the
Histories
? a detailed account of the
Greco-Persian Wars
. Herodotus was the first writer to perform
systematic investigation
of historical events. He has been described as "
The Father of History
", a title conferred on him by the
ancient Roman
orator
Cicero
.
[2]
[3]
The
Histories
primarily cover the lives of prominent kings and famous battles such as
Marathon
,
Thermopylae
,
Artemisium
,
Salamis
,
Plataea
, and
Mycale
. His work deviates from the main topics to provide a cultural,
ethnographical
,
geographical
, and
historiographical
background that forms an essential part of the narrative and provides readers with a wellspring of additional information.
Herodotus has been criticized for his inclusion of "legends and fanciful accounts" in his work. The contemporaneous historian
Thucydides
accused him of making up stories for entertainment. However, Herodotus explained that he reported what he could see and was told.
[4]
A sizable portion of the
Histories
has since been confirmed by modern historians and
archaeologists
.
Life
[
edit
]
Modern scholars generally turn to Herodotus' own writing for reliable information about his life,
[5]
: 7
supplemented with ancient yet much later sources, such as the
Byzantine
Suda
, an 11th-century encyclopedia which possibly took its information from traditional accounts. Still, the challenge is great:
The data are so few ? they rest upon such late and slight authority; they are so improbable or so contradictory, that to compile them into a biography is like building a house of cards, which the first breath of criticism will blow to the ground. Still, certain points may be approximately fixed ...
Childhood
[
edit
]
Herodotus was, according to his own statement, at the beginning of his work, a native of
Halicarnassus
in
Anatolia
,
[7]
and it is generally accepted that he was born there around 485 BC. The
Suda
says his family was influential, that he was the son of Lyxes and Dryo and the brother of Theodorus, and that he was also related to
Panyassis
? an epic poet of the time.
[6]
: Introduction
[5]
: Introduction
Halicarnassus was then within the
Persian Empire
, making Herodotus a Persian subject,
[8]
[9]
and it may be that the young Herodotus heard local eyewitness accounts of events within the empire and of Persian preparations for the
invasion of Greece
, including the movements of the local fleet under the command of
Artemisia I of Caria
.
[
citation needed
]
Inscriptions recently discovered at Halicarnassus indicate that Artemesia's grandson
Lygdamis
negotiated with a local assembly to settle disputes over seized property, which is consistent with a tyrant under pressure. His name is not mentioned later in the tribute list of the Athenian
Delian League
, indicating that there might well have been a successful uprising against him some time before 454 BC.
[
citation needed
]
Herodotus wrote his
Histories
in the
Ionian dialect
, in spite of being born in a
Dorian
settlement. According to the
Suda
, Herodotus learned the Ionian dialect as a boy living on the island of Samos, to which he had fled with his family from the oppressions of Lygdamis, tyrant of Halicarnassus and grandson of Artemisia.
Panyassis
, the epic poet related to Herodotus, is reported to have taken part in a failed uprising.
[10]
The
Suda
also informs us that Herodotus later returned home to lead the revolt that eventually overthrew the tyrant. Due to recent discoveries of inscriptions at Halicarnassus dated to about Herodotus' time, we now know that the Ionic dialect was used in Halicarnassus in some official documents, so there is no need to assume (like the
Suda
) that he must have learned the dialect elsewhere.
[5]
: 11
The
Suda
is the only source placing Herodotus as the heroic liberator of his birthplace, casting doubt upon the veracity of that romantic account.
[6]
: 11
Early travels
[
edit
]
As Herodotus himself reveals, Halicarnassus, though a Dorian city, had ended its close relations with its Dorian neighbours after an unseemly quarrel (I, 144),
[
clarification needed
]
and it had helped pioneer Greek trade with Egypt (II, 178). It was, therefore, an outward-looking, international-minded port within the
Persian Empire
, and the historian's family could well have had contacts in other countries under Persian rule, facilitating his travels and his researches.
Herodotus' eyewitness accounts indicate that he traveled in Egypt in association with Athenians, probably sometime after 454 BC or possibly earlier, after an Athenian fleet had assisted the uprising against
Persian rule
in 460?454 BC. He probably traveled to
Tyre
next and then down the
Euphrates
to
Babylon
. For some reason, possibly associated with local politics, he subsequently found himself unpopular in Halicarnassus, and sometime around 447 BC, migrated to
Periclean Athens
? a city whose people and democratic institutions he openly admired (V, 78). Athens was also the place where he came to know the local topography (VI, 137; VIII, 52?55), as well as leading citizens such as the
Alcmaeonids
, a clan whose history is featured frequently in his writing.
According to
Plutarch
,
[11]
Herodotus was granted a financial reward by the Athenian assembly in recognition of his work. Plutarch, using
Diyllus
as a source, says this was 10
talents
.
[12]
Later life
[
edit
]
In 443 BC or shortly afterwards, he migrated to
Thurii
, in modern
Calabria
, as part of an Athenian-sponsored
colony
.
Aristotle
refers to a version of the
Histories
written by "Herodotus of Thurium", and some passages in the
Histories
have been interpreted as proof that he wrote about
Magna Graecia
from personal experience there (IV, 15,99; VI, 127). Intimate knowledge of some events in the first years of the
Peloponnesian War
(VI, 91; VII, 133, 233; IX, 73) suggests that he returned to Athens, in which case it is possible that he died there during an outbreak of the plague. It is also possible he died in
Macedonia
instead, after obtaining the patronage of the court there; or else he died back in Thurii. There is nothing in the
Histories
that can be dated to later than 430 BC with any certainty, and it is generally assumed that he died not long afterwards, possibly before his sixtieth year.
Author and orator
[
edit
]
Herodotus would have made his researches known to the larger world through oral recitations to a public crowd.
John Marincola
writes in his introduction to the Penguin edition of the
Histories
that there are certain identifiable pieces in the early books of Herodotus' work which could be labeled as "performance pieces". These portions of the research seem independent and "almost detachable", so that they might have been set aside by the author for the purposes of an oral performance. The intellectual matrix of the 5th century, Marincola suggests, comprised many oral performances in which philosophers would dramatically recite such detachable pieces of their work. The idea was to criticize previous arguments on a topic and emphatically and enthusiastically insert their own in order to win over the audience.
[13]
It was conventional in Herodotus' day for authors to "publish" their works by reciting them at popular festivals. According to
Lucian
, Herodotus took his finished work straight from
Anatolia
to the
Olympic Games
and read the entire
Histories
to the assembled spectators in one sitting, receiving rapturous applause at the end of it.
[6]
: 14
According to a very different account by an ancient grammarian,
[14]
Herodotus refused to begin reading his work at the festival of Olympia until some clouds offered him a bit of shade ? by which time the assembly had dispersed. (Hence the proverbial expression "Herodotus and his shade" to describe someone who misses an opportunity through delay.) Herodotus' recitation at Olympia was a favourite theme among ancient writers, and there is another interesting variation on the story to be found in the
Suda
: that of
Photius
[15]
and
Tzetzes
,
[16]
in which a young
Thucydides
happened to be in the assembly with his father, and burst into tears during the recital. Herodotus observed prophetically to the boy's father, "Your son's soul yearns for knowledge."
Eventually, Thucydides and Herodotus became close enough for both to be interred in Thucydides' tomb in Athens. Such at least was the opinion of
Marcellinus
in his
Life of Thucydides
.
[17]
According to the
Suda
, he was buried in Macedonian
Pella
and in the
agora
in Thurii.
[6]
: 25
Place in history
[
edit
]
Herodotus announced the purpose and scope of his work at the beginning of his
Histories:
[b]
[18]
Here are presented the results of the inquiry carried out by Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The purpose is to prevent the traces of human events from being erased by time, and to preserve the fame of the important and remarkable achievements produced by both Greeks and non-Greeks; among the matters covered is, in particular, the cause of the hostilities between Greeks and non-Greeks.
?
Herodotus,
The Histories
(tr. R. Waterfield, 2008)
[19]
Predecessors
[
edit
]
His record of the achievements of others was an achievement in itself, though the extent of it has been debated. Herodotus' place in history and his significance may be understood according to the traditions within which he worked. His work is the earliest Greek prose to have survived intact. However,
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
, a literary critic of
Augustan Rome
, listed seven predecessors of Herodotus, describing their works as simple, unadorned accounts of their own and other cities and people, Greek or foreign, including popular legends, sometimes melodramatic and naive, often charming ? all traits that can be found in the work of Herodotus himself.
[20]
Modern historians regard the chronology as uncertain, but according to the ancient account, these predecessors included
Dionysius of Miletus
, Charon of Lampsacus,
Hellanicus of Lesbos
,
Xanthus of Lydia
and, the best attested of them all,
Hecataeus of Miletus
. Of these, only fragments of Hecataeus' works survived, and the authenticity of these is debatable,
[5]
: 27
but they provide a glimpse into the kind of tradition within which Herodotus wrote his own
Histories
.
Contemporary and modern critics
[
edit
]
It is on account of the many strange stories and the folk-tales he reported that his critics have branded him "The Father of Lies".
[5]
: 10
[21]
Even his own contemporaries found reason to scoff at his achievement. In fact, one modern scholar
[6]
has wondered whether Herodotus left his home in Greek
Anatolia
, migrating westwards to Athens and beyond, because his own countrymen had ridiculed his work, a circumstance possibly hinted at in an epitaph said to have been dedicated to Herodotus at one of his three supposed resting places,
Thuria
:
Herodotus the son of Sphynx
lies; in Ionic history without peer;
a Dorian born, who fled from slander's brand
and made in Thuria his new native land.
[5]
: 13
Yet it was in Athens where his most formidable contemporary critics could be found. In 425 BC, which is about the time that Herodotus is thought by many scholars to have died, the Athenian comic dramatist
Aristophanes
created
The Acharnians
, in which he blames the
Peloponnesian War
on the abduction of some prostitutes ? a mocking reference to Herodotus, who reported the Persians' account of their
wars with Greece
, beginning with the rapes of the mythical heroines
Io
,
Europa
,
Medea
, and
Helen
.
[22]
[23]
Similarly, the Athenian historian
Thucydides
dismissed Herodotus as a story-teller.
[24]
: 191
Thucydides, who had been trained in
rhetoric
, became the model for subsequent prose-writers as an author who seeks to appear firmly in control of his material, whereas with his frequent digressions Herodotus appeared to minimize (or possibly disguise) his authorial control.
[19]
Moreover, Thucydides developed a historical topic more in keeping with the Greek world-view: focused on the context of the
polis
or city-state. The interplay of civilizations was more relevant to Greeks living in Anatolia, such as Herodotus himself, for whom life within a foreign civilization was a recent memory.
[24]
: 191
Before the Persian crisis, history had been represented among the Greeks only by local or family traditions. The "Wars of Liberation" had given to Herodotus the first genuinely historical inspiration felt by a Greek. These wars showed him that there was a corporate life, higher than that of the city, of which the story might be told; and they offered to him as a subject the drama of the collision between East and West. With him, the spirit of history was born into Greece; and his work, called after the nine Muses, was indeed the first utterance of
Clio
.
Though Herodotus is generally considered a reliable source of ancient history, many present-day historians believe that his accounts are at least partially inaccurate, attributing the observed inconsistencies in the
Histories
to exaggeration.
[26]
[27]
[28]
See also
[
edit
]
Critical editions
[
edit
]
- C. Hude (ed.)
Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs prior: Libros I?IV continens.
(Oxford 1908)
- C. Hude (ed.)
Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs alter: Libri V?IX continens.
(Oxford 1908)
- H. B. Rosen (ed.)
Herodoti Historiae. Vol. I: Libros I?IV continens.
(Leipzig 1987)
- H. B. Rosen (ed.)
Herodoti Historiae. Vol. II: Libros V?IX continens indicibus criticis adiectis
(Stuttgart 1997)
- N. G. Wilson (ed.)
Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs prior: Libros I?IV continens.
(Oxford 2015)
- N. G. Wilson (ed.)
Herodoti Historiae. Tomvs alter: Libri V?IX continens.
(Oxford 2015)
Translations
[
edit
]
Several English translations of Herodotus'
Histories
are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by:
- Henry Cary (judge)
, translation 1849:
text
Internet Archive
- George Rawlinson
, translation 1858?1860. Public domain; many editions available, although
Everyman's Library
and Wordsworth Classics editions are the most common ones still in print.
[6]
(revised in 1935 by
A. W. Lawrence
)
- George Campbell Macaulay
, translation 1890, published in two volumes. London: Macmillan and Co.
- A. D. Godley
1920; revised 1926. Reprinted 1931, 1946, 1960, 1966, 1975, 1981, 1990, 1996, 1999, 2004. Available in
four volumes
from
Loeb Classical Library
,
Harvard University Press
.
ISBN
0-674-99130-3
Printed with Greek on the left and English on the right:
- A. D. Godley
Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume I : Books 1?2
(Cambridge, Massachusetts 1920)
- A. D. Godley
Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume II : Books 3?4
(Cambridge, Massachusetts 1921)
- A. D. Godley
Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume III : Books 5?7
(Cambridge, Massachusetts 1922)
- A. D. Godley
Herodotus : The Persian Wars : Volume IV : Books 8?9
(Cambridge, Massachusetts 1925)
- Aubrey de Selincourt
, originally 1954; revised by John Marincola in 1996. Several editions from
Penguin Books
available.
- David Grene
, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
- Robin Waterfield
, with an Introduction and Notes by
Carolyn Dewald
, Oxford World Classics, 1997.
ISBN
978-0-19-953566-8
- Andrea L. Purvis,
The Landmark Herodotus
, edited by Robert B. Strassler. Pantheon, 2007.
ISBN
978-0-375-42109-9
with adequate ancillary information.
- Walter Blanco,
Herodotus: The Histories: The Complete Translation, Backgrounds, Commentaries
. Edited by Jennifer Tolbert Roberts. New York: W. W. Norton, 2013.
- Tom Holland
,
The Histories, Herodotus
. Introduction and notes by Paul Cartledge. New York, Penguin, 2013.
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
[1]
h?-
ROD
-?-t?s
- ^
For the past several hundred years, the title of Herodotus' work has been translated rather roughly as
Histories
or
The History
.
[
citation needed
]
The original title can be translated from the Greek as "researches" or "inquiries".
[
citation needed
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Herodotus"
.
Dictionary.com Unabridged
(Online). n.d.
- ^
Luce, T. James (2002).
The Greek Historians
. p.
26
.
- ^
"Herodotus"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
.
Archived
from the original on 4 April 2021
. Retrieved
30 March
2021
.
- ^
Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (11 September 2014).
The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization
. OUP Oxford. p. 372.
ISBN
978-0-19-101675-2
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Burn, A.R. (1972).
Herodotus: The Histories
.
Penguin Classics
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
k
l
Rawlinson, George (1859).
The History of Herodotus
. Vol. 1. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company.
"The History of Herodotus"
. Classics. Translated by Rawlinson, George.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
.
Archived
from the original on 1 December 2012
. Retrieved
25 July
2001
– via The Internet Classics Archive.
- ^
Smith, William, ed. (1873).
"A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, Hero'dotus"
.
www.perseus.tufts.edu
. London: John Murray
. Retrieved
5 August
2023
.
- ^
Dandamaev, M.A.
(1989).
A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire
. Brill. p. 153.
ISBN
978-90-04-09172-6
.
The 'Father of History', Herodotus, was born at Halicarnassus, and before his emigration to mainland Greece was a subject of the Persian empire.
- ^
Kia, Mehrdad (2016).
The Persian Empire: A historical encyclopedia
. ABC-CLIO. p. 161.
ISBN
978-1-61069-391-2
.
At the time of Herodotus' birth southwestern Asia Minor, including Halicarnassus, was under Persian Achaemenid rule.
- ^
"Histories of Herodotus"
.
- ^
Plutarch
De Malign. Herod.
II p. 862 A, cited by.
[6]
: Introduction
- ^
"Plutarch on the Malice of Herodotus"
.
www.bostonleadershipbuilders.com
. Retrieved
26 January
2022
.
- ^
Herodotus (2003).
The Histories
. Translated by de Selincourt, Aubrey. Introduction and notes by John Marincola. Penguin Books. pp. xii.
- ^
Montfaucon's
Bibliothec. Coisl. Cod.
clxxvii p. 609, cited by.
[6]
: 14
- ^
Photius
Bibliothec. Cod.
lx p. 59, cited by Ralinson
[6]
: 15
- ^
Tzetzes
Chil.
1.19, cited by.
[6]
: 15
- ^
Marcellinus,
in Vita. Thucyd.
p. ix, cited by.
[6]
: 25
- ^
"Herodotus"
.
Encyclopedia of World Biography
. The Gale Group
. Retrieved
11 March
2018
.
- ^
a
b
Dewald, Carolyn, ed. (1998).
The Histories by Herodotus
. Translated by Waterfield, Robin. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. "Introduction", p. xviii.
ISBN
9780199535668
.
- ^
,
[5]
: 23
citing Dionysius
On Thucydides
- ^
Pipes, David.
"Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies"
.
Archived
from the original on 27 January 2008
. Retrieved
16 November
2009
.
- ^
Tritle., Lawrence A. (2004).
The Peloponnesian War
. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 147?148.
- ^
Hart, John (1982).
Herodotus and Greek History
. Taylor and Francis. p. 174.
- ^
a
b
Murray, Oswyn (1986).
"Greek historians"
. In Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (eds.).
The Oxford History of the Classical World
. Oxford University Press. pp.
186?203
.
ISBN
978-0-19-872112-3
.
- ^
Jebb, Richard C.
The Genius of Sophocles
. section 7.
- ^
"8 Myth and Truth in Herodotus' Cyrus Logos"
.
Oxford Academic
. Retrieved
27 September
2023
.
- ^
Mark, Joshua J.
"Herodotus"
.
World History Encyclopedia
. Retrieved
27 September
2023
.
- ^
Larkin, Patrick (11 March 2022).
"Herodotus, Homer, and The Histories"
.
Stony Brook Undergraduate History Journal
.
Archived
from the original on 12 October 2023
. Retrieved
27 September
2023
.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Asheri, David; Lloyd, Alan; Corcella, Aldo (2007).
A Commentary on Herodotus, Books 1?4
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-814956-9
.
- Baragwanath, Emily; de Bakker, Mathieu (2010).
Herodotus
. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-980286-9
.
- Herodotus; Blanco, Walter (2013).
The Histories
. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
ISBN
978-0-393-93397-0
.
- Boedeker, Deborah (2000). "Herodotus' genre(s)". In Depew, Mary; Obbink, Dirk (eds.).
Matrices of Genre: Authors, Canons, and Society
. Harvard University Press. pp. 97?114.
ISBN
978-0-674-03420-4
.
- Cameron, Alan (2004).
Greek Mythography in the Roman World
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-803821-4
.
- Dalley, S. (2003). "Why did Herodotus not mention the Hanging Gardens of Babylon?". In Derow, P.; Parker, R. (eds.).
Herodotus and his World
. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 171?189.
ISBN
978-0-19-925374-6
.
- Dalley, S. (2013).
The Mystery of the Hanging Garden of Babylon: an Elusive World Wonder Traced
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-966226-5
.
- Evans, J.A.S. (1968). "Father of History or Father of Lies; The Reputation of Herodotus".
Classical Journal
.
64
: 11?17.
- Farley, David G. (2010).
Modernist Travel Writing: Intellectuals Abroad
. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press.
ISBN
978-0-8262-7228-7
.
- Fehling, Detlev (1989) [1971].
Herodotos and His 'Sources': Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art
. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs. Vol. 21. Translated by Howie, J.G. Leeds: Francis Cairns.
ISBN
978-0-905205-70-0
.
- Immerwahr, Henry R. (1985). "Herodotus". In Easterling, P.E.; Knox, B.M.W. (eds.).
Greek Literature
. The Cambridge History of Classical Greek Literature. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-21042-3
.
- Jain, Meenakshi (2011).
The India they saw: Foreign Accounts
. Delhi, IN: Ocean Books.
ISBN
978-81-8430-106-9
.
- Lloyd, Alan B. (1993).
Herodotus, Book II
. Etudes preliminaires aux religions orientales dans l'Empire romain. Vol. 43. Leiden: Brill.
ISBN
978-90-04-07737-9
.
- Majumdar, R.C. (1981).
The Classical accounts of India: Being a compilation of the English translations of the accounts left by Herodotus, Megasthenes, Arrian, Strabo, Quintus, Diodorus, Siculus, Justin, Plutarch, Frontinus, Nearchus, Apollonius, Pliny, Ptolemy, Aelian, and others with maps
. Calcutta, IN: Firma KLM.
ISBN
978-0-8364-0704-4
.
- Mikalson, Jon D. (2003).
Herodotus and Religion in the Persian Wars
. Chapel Hill, NC: Univ of North Carolina Press.
ISBN
978-0-8078-2798-7
.
- Nielsen, Flemming A.J. (1997).
The Tragedy in History: Herodotus and the deuteronomistic history
. A&C Black.
ISBN
978-1-85075-688-0
.
- Roberts, Jennifer T. (2011).
Herodotus: a Very Short Introduction
. OXford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-957599-2
.
- Sparks, Kenton L. (1998).
Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible
. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
ISBN
978-1-57506-033-0
.
- Waters, K.H. (1985).
Herodotos the Historian: His problems, methods and originality
. Tulsa, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
ISBN
978-0-8061-1928-1
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bakker, Egbert J.
; de Jong, Irene J.F.; van Wees, Hans, eds. (2002).
Brill's companion to Herodotus
. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
ISBN
978-90-04-12060-0
.
- Baragwanath, Emily (2010).
Motivation and Narrative in Herodotus
. Oxford Classical Monographs. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-964550-3
.
- Bury, J.B.
;
Meiggs, Russell
(1975).
A History of Greece
(Fourth ed.). London: MacMillan Press. pp. 251?252.
ISBN
978-0-333-15492-2
.
- De Selincourt, Aubrey (1962).
The World of Herodotus
. London: Secker and Warburg.
- Dewald, Carolyn; Marincola, John, eds. (2006).
The Cambridge companion to Herodotus
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-83001-0
.
- Evans, J.A.S. (2006).
The beginnings of history: Herodotus and the Persian Wars
. Campbellville, Ont.: Edgar Kent.
ISBN
978-0-88866-652-9
.
- Evans, J.A.S. (1982).
Herodotus
. Boston: Twayne.
ISBN
978-0-8057-6488-8
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