Heresy in Christianity
denotes the formal denial or doubt of a core
doctrine
of the Christian faith
[1]
as defined by one or more of the
Christian churches
.
[2]
The study of heresy requires an understanding of the development of
orthodoxy
and the role of
creeds
in the definition of orthodox beliefs, since heresy is always defined in relation to orthodoxy. Orthodoxy has been in the process of self-definition for centuries, defining itself in terms of its faith by clarifying beliefs in opposition to people or doctrines that are perceived as incorrect.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The word
heresy
comes from
haeresis
, a Latin transliteration of the Greek word α?ρεσι? originally meaning choosing, choice, course of action, or in an extended sense a sect or school of thought,
[3]
[4]
which by the first century came to denote warring factions and the party spirit. The word appears in the
New Testament
, usually translated as
sect
,
[5]
and was appropriated by the Church to mean a sect or division that threatened the unity of Christians. Heresy eventually became regarded as a departure from
orthodoxy
, a sense in which
heterodoxy
was already in Christian use soon after the year 100.
[6]
Definition
[
edit
]
Heresy is used today to denote the formal denial or doubt of a core doctrine of the Christian faith
[1]
as defined by one or more of the
Christian churches
.
[2]
It is distinguished from both
apostasy
and
schism
,
[2]
apostasy being nearly always total abandonment of the Christian faith after it has been freely accepted,
[7]
and schism being a formal and deliberate breach of Christian unity and an offense against charity without being based essentially on doctrine.
[8]
Early Christianity (1st century ? c. 325)
[
edit
]
Development of orthodoxy
[
edit
]
The development of doctrine, the position of
orthodoxy
, and the relationship between the early Church and early heretical groups is a matter of academic debate.
Walter Bauer
, in his
Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity
(1934/1971),
[note 1]
proposed that in earliest Christianity, orthodoxy and heresy did not stand in relation to one another as primary to secondary, but in many regions heresy was the original manifestation of Christianity.
[9]
[10]
Bauer reassessed as a historian the overwhelmingly dominant view
[note 2]
that for the period of Christian origins, ecclesiastical doctrine already represented what is primary, while heresies, on the other hand somehow are a deviation from the genuine (Bauer, "Introduction").
[9]
Scholars such as
Pagels
and
Ehrman
have built on Bauer's original thesis. Drawing upon distinctions between
Jewish Christians
, Gentile Christians, and other groups such as Gnostics and
Marcionites
, they argue that early Christianity was fragmented, and with contemporaneous competing orthodoxies.
[11]
[12]
Ehrman's view is that while the specifics of Bauer's demonstration were later rejected, his intuitions are broadly accepted by scholars and were confirmed beyond what Bauer might have guessed.
[13]
According to
H. E. W. Turner
, responding to Bauer's thesis in 1954, "what became official orthodoxy was taught early on by the majority of church teachers, albeit not in fully developed form."
[14]
According to
Darrell Bock
, a Christian apologist,
Bauer's theory does not show an equality between the established church and outsiders including
Simon Magus
.
[16]
[note 3]
According to Mitchell et al., each early Christian community was unique, but the tenets of the mainstream or
catholic
Church insured that each early Christian community did not remain isolated.
[17]
Diversity
[
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]
The
Ante-Nicene period
(2nd?3rd century) saw the rise of a great number of Christian
sects
,
cults
and
movements
with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. They had different interpretations of
Scripture
, particularly the
divinity of Jesus
and the nature of the
Trinity
. Some of the major
sects
,
cults
and
movements
with different interpretations of
Scripture
from those of the
Proto-Orthodox
church were:
Proto-orthodoxy
[
edit
]
Before AD 313, the
heretical nature of some beliefs was a matter of much debate within the churches
, and there was no true mechanism in place to resolve the various differences of beliefs. Heresy was to be approached by the leader of the church according to
Eusebius
, author of the
Church History
.
Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter of
Tertullian
's
Prescription Against Heretics
(in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of Irenaeus'
Against Heresies
(
ca
180, in five volumes), written in Lyon after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters of
Ignatius of Antioch
and
Polycarp of Smyrna
to various churches warned against false teachers, and the
Epistle of Barnabas
accepted by many Christians as part of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned about
mixing Judaism with Christianity
, as did other writers, leading to decisions reached in the
first ecumenical council
, which was convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325, in response to further disruptive polemical controversy within the Christian community, in that case
Arianist
disputes over the nature of the Trinity.
Irenaeus (
c.
130
?
c.
202
) was the first to argue that his orthodox position was the same faith that
Jesus
gave to the
apostles
, and that the identity of the apostles, their successors, and the teachings of the same were all well-known public knowledge. This was therefore an early argument supported by
apostolic succession
. Irenaeus first established the doctrine of four gospels and no more, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the light of
John
. Irenaeus' opponents, however, claimed to have received secret teachings from Jesus via other apostles which were not publicly known. Gnosticism is predicated on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived in the canonic Scripture as did warning by the Christ that there would be
false prophets
or false teachers. Irenaeus' opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine of
continuing revelation
.
Late Antiquity (313?476) and Early Middle Ages (476?799)
[
edit
]
Christology
[
edit
]
The earliest controversies in Late Antiquity were generally
Christological
in nature, concerning the interpretation of Jesus' (eternal) divinity and humanity. In the 4th century,
Arius
and
Arianism
held that Jesus, while not merely mortal, was not eternally divine and was, therefore, of lesser status than
God the Father
. Arianism was condemned at the Council of Nicea (325), but nevertheless dominated most of the church for the greater part of the 4th century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favoured them.
Trinitarianism
held that
God the Father
,
God the Son
, and the
Holy Spirit
were all strictly one being with three
hypostases
. The
Euchites
, a 4th-century
antinomian
sect from
Macedonia
held that the Threefold God transformed himself into a single hypostasis in order to unite with the souls of the perfect. They were anti-clerical and rejected baptism and the sacraments, believing that the passions could be overcome and perfection achieved through prayer.
[18]
Many groups held
dualistic beliefs
, maintaining that reality was composed into two radically opposing parts: matter, usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good.
Docetism
held that Jesus' humanity was merely an illusion, thus denying the incarnation. Others held that both the material and spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good, and that this was represented in the unified divine and human natures of Christ.
[19]
The
orthodox
teaching, as it developed in response to these interpretations, is that Christ was fully divine and at the same time fully human, and that the three persons of the
Trinity
are co-equal and co-eternal.
Legal suppression of heresies
[
edit
]
It was only after the legalisation of Christianity, which began under
Constantine I
in AD 313 that the various beliefs of the proto-orthodox Church began to be made uniform and formulated as dogma, through the
canons
promulgated by the
General Councils
. The first known usage of the term 'heresy' in a civil legal context was in 380 by the "
Edict of Thessalonica
" of Theodosius I. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as 'heresy'. By this edict, in some senses, the
line between the Christian Church's spiritual authority and the Roman State's jurisdiction was blurred
. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and State was a sharing of State powers of legal enforcement between Church and State authorities, with the state enforcing what it determined to be orthodox teaching.
Within five years of the official criminalization of heresy by the emperor, the first Christian heretic,
Priscillian
, was executed in 385 by Roman officials. For some years after the
Protestant Reformation
,
Protestant denominations
were also known to execute those whom they considered heretics.
The edict of
Theodosius II
(435) provided severe punishments for those who had or spread writings of Nestorius.
[20]
Those who possessed writings of Arius were sentenced to death.
[21]
Ecumenical councils
[
edit
]
Seven councils considered by main Christian denominations as ecumenical
were convened between 325 and 787. These were mostly concerned with Christological disputes:
- The
First Ecumenical Council
was convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325 and presided over by the Patriarch
Alexander of Alexandria
, with over 300 bishops condemning the view of
Arius
that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.
[note 4]
Each phrase in the
Nicene Creed
, formulated at this Council of Nicaea (AD 325), addresses some aspect that had been under passionate discussion prior to Constantine I. Nevertheless, Arianism dominated most of the church for the greater part of the 4th century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favoured them.
- The
Second Ecumenical Council
was held at Constantinople in 381, presided over by the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, with 150 bishops, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity. This council also condemned Arianism.
- The
Third Ecumenical Council
is that of Ephesus, a stronghold of Cyrillian Christianity, in 431. It was presided over by the Patriarch of Alexandria, with 250 bishops and was mired in controversy because of the absences of the Patriarchs of Constantinople and Antioch, the absence of the Syrian Clergy, and violence directed against Nestorius and his supporters. It affirmed that Mary is the "Bearer" of God (
Theotokos
), contrary to the teachings of
Nestorius
, and it anathematized Nestorius. A mirror Council held by Nestorius (Patriarch of Antioch) and the Syrian clergy affirmed Mary as Christokos, "Bearer" of Christ, and anathematized
Cyril of Alexandria
.
- The
Fourth Ecumenical Council
is that of Chalcedon in 451, with the Patriarch of Constantinople presiding over 500 bishops. This council affirmed that Jesus has two natures, is truly God and truly man, distinct yet always in perfect union. This was based largely on
Pope Leo the Great's
Tome
. Thus, it condemned
Monophysitism
and would be influential in refuting
Monothelitism
.
- The
Fifth Ecumenical Council
is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship of the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of
Origen
on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.
- The
Sixth Ecumenical Council
is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the
Monothelites
.
- The
Seventh Ecumenical Council
was called under the Empress Regent
Irene of Athens
in 787, known as the second of Nicaea. It supports the
veneration
of
icons
while forbidding their worship. It is often referred to as "The Triumph of Orthodoxy"
Not all of these Councils have been universally recognised as
ecumenical
.
In addition, the
Catholic Church
has convened numerous other councils which it deems as having the same authority, making a total of twenty-one Ecumenical Councils recognised by the Catholic Church.
The
Assyrian Church of the East
accepts only the first two, and
Oriental Orthodoxy
only three.
Pope Sergius I
rejected the
Quinisext Council
of 692 (see also
Pentarchy
). The Fourth Council of Constantinople of
869?870
and
879?880
is disputed by Catholicism and
Eastern Orthodoxy
.
Present-day
nontrinitarians
, such as
Unitarians
,
Latter-day Saints
and other
Mormons
, and
Jehovah's Witnesses
, reject all seven Councils.
Some Eastern Orthodox consider the following council to be ecumenical, although this is not universally agreed upon:
- The
Fifth Council of Constantinople
was actually a series of councils held between 1341 and 1351. It affirmed the
hesychastic
theology of St.
Gregory Palamas
and condemned the philosopher
Barlaam of Calabria
.
- In addition to these councils there have been a number of significant councils meant to further define the Eastern Orthodox position. They are the
Synods of Constantinople in 1484
,
1583
,
1755
, 1819, and
1872
, the
Synod of Ia?i
, 1642, and the
Pan-Orthodox Synod of Jerusalem, 1672
.
Some individual examples of the execution of Eastern Orthodox heretics do exist, such as the execution of
Avvakum
in 1682.
High Middle Ages (800?1299) and Late Middle Ages and the early Renaissance (1300?1520)
[
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]
From the late 11th century onward, heresy once again came to be a concern for Catholic authorities, as reports became increasingly common. The reasons for this are still not fully understood, but the causes for this new period of heresy include popular response to the 11th-century clerical reform movement, greater
lay
familiarity with the
Bible
, exclusion of lay people from
sacramental
activity, and more rigorous definition and supervision of
Catholic dogma
. The question of how heresy should be suppressed was not resolved, and there was initially substantial clerical resistance to the use of physical force by secular authorities to correct spiritual deviance. As heresy was viewed with increasing concern by the
papacy
, however, the
secular arm
was used more frequently and freely during the 12th century and afterward.
Medieval heresies
[
edit
]
There were many Christian
sects
,
cults
,
movements
and individuals throughout the Middle Ages whose teachings were deemed heretical by the established church, such as:
- Paulicians
? an
Armenian
group (6th to 9th centuries) who sought a return to the purity of the church at the time of
Paul the Apostle
.
- Tondrakians
? an
Armenian
group (9th to 11th centuries) who advocated the abolition of the
Church
along with all its traditional rites.
- Bogomils
? a group arising in the 11th century in
Bulgaria
who sought a return to the spirituality of the early Christians and opposed established forms of government and church.
- Gundolfo
? an itinerant 11th century preacher near
Lille
,
France
, who taught that
salvation
was achieved through a virtuous life of abandoning the world, restraining the appetites of the flesh, earning food by the labor of hands, doing no injury to anyone, and extending charity to everyone of their own faith.
- Cathars
? a major Christian movement in the
Languedoc
region of southern
France
from the 11th to 13th centuries. The Cathars believed that human
souls
were the spirits of
angels
trapped within the physical creation of an evil god. Through living a pure and sinless life, the soul could become perfect and free from the snare of matter.
- Arnoldists
? a 12th-century group, inspired by the example of controversial figure
Arnold of Brescia
(
c.
1090 ? June 1155), from
Lombardy
who criticized the wealth of the
Catholic Church
and preached against
baptism
and the
Eucharist
.
- Petrobrusians
were 12th century followers of Peter of Bruys in southeastern
France
who rejected the authority of the
Church Fathers
and of the Catholic Church, opposing
clerical celibacy
,
infant baptism
,
prayers for the dead
and
organ
music.
- Henricans
were 12th century followers of Henry of Lausanne in France. They rejected the
doctrinal
and disciplinary authority of the
church
, did not recognize any form of
worship
or
liturgy
and denied the
sacraments
.
- Waldensians
? a movement that began in the 12th century in
Lyon
,
France
, and still exists today. They held that
Apostolic poverty
was the way to spiritual perfection and rejected what they perceived as the
idolatry
of the
Catholic Church
.
- Humiliati
? a 12th-century group from northern Italy who embraced poverty, charity and
mortification
. Initially approved by the church, they were suppressed for disobedience in 1571.
- Brethren of the Free Spirit
? a term applied in the 13th century to those, primarily in the
Low Countries
,
Germany
,
France
,
Bohemia
and northern
Italy
, who believed that the
sacraments
were unnecessary for
salvation
, that the
soul
could be perfected through imitating the life of
Christ
, and that the perfected soul was free of
sin
and beyond all
ecclesiastical
,
moral
and secular law.
- Apostolic Brethren
(later known as
Dulcinians
) ? a 13th to 14th century sect from northern Italy founded by
Gerard Segarelli
and continued by
Fra Dolcino
of
Novara
. The Apostolic Brethren rejected the worldliness of the church and sought a life of perfect sanctity, in complete poverty, with no fixed domicile, no care for the morrow, and no vows.
- Fraticelli
(or Spiritual Franciscans) ?
Franciscan
through the 13th to 15th centuries who regarded the wealth of the Church as scandalous.
- Neo-Adamites
? a term applied in the 13th to 15th century to those, including
Taborites
,
Picards
and some
Beghards
, who wished to return to the purity of the life of
Adam
by
living communally
, practicing social and religious
nudity
, embracing
free love
and rejecting
marriage
and individual ownership of property.
- Nicholas of Basel
? a 14th-century
Swiss
leader who, after a spiritual experience, taught that he had the authority to use
episcopal
and
priestly
powers (even though he was not ordained), that submission to his direction was necessary for attaining spiritual perfection, and that his followers could not
sin
even though they committed crimes or disobeyed both the
Church
and
pope
.
- Lollards
? the 14th century followers of
John Wycliffe
. They advocated
translating the Bible into English
, rejected
baptism
and
confession
, and denied the doctrine of
transubstantiation
.
- Hussites
? a 15th-century Czech movement, following the teachings of reformer
Jan Hus
.
Inquisition
[
edit
]
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Catholic Church instituted the papal or monastic
Inquisition
, an official body charged with the suppression of heresy. This began as an extension and more rigorous enforcement of pre-existing episcopal powers (possessed, but little used, by bishops in the early Middle Ages) to inquire about and suppress heresy, but later became the domain of selected
Dominicans
and
Franciscans
[22]
under the direct power of the Pope. The use of torture to extract confessions was authorized by Innocent IV in 1252.
[22]
The
Albigensian Crusade
(1209?1229) was part of the
Catholic Church
's efforts to crush the
Cathars
. It is linked to the movement now known as the
Medieval Inquisition
. Another example of a medieval movement condemend as heretic is the
Hussite
movement in the
Czech lands
in the early 15th century.
The last person to be burned alive at the stake on orders from Rome was
Giordano Bruno
, executed in 1600 for a collection of heretical beliefs including
Copernicanism
, belief of an unlimited universe with innumerable inhabited worlds, opinions contrary to the Catholic faith about the Trinity, divinity of Christ, and Incarnation.
Reformation and Modern Era (1520?present)
[
edit
]
Martin Luther
and
Philip Melanchthon
, who played an instrumental part in the formation of the
Lutheran Churches
condemned
Johannes Agricola
and his doctrine of
antinomianism
?the belief that Christians were free from the moral law contained in the
Ten Commandments
?as a heresy.
[23]
Traditional Lutheranism, espoused by Luther himself, teaches that after justification, "the Law of God continued to guide people in how they were to live before God".
[23]
The
39 Articles
of the
Anglican Communion
and the
Articles of Religion
of the
Methodist Churches
condemn
Pelagianism
.
[24]
John Wesley
, the founder of the Methodist tradition, harshly criticized antinomianism,
[25]
considering it the "worst of all heresies".
[26]
He taught that Christian believers are bound to follow the
moral law
for their
sanctification
.
[25]
Methodist Christians thus teach the necessity of following the moral law as contained in the Ten Commandments, citing
Jesus'
teaching, "If ye love me, keep my commandments" (cf. Saint John 14:15).
[27]
In the 17th century,
Jansenism
, which taught the doctrine of
predestination
, was regarded by the
Catholic Church
as a heresy; the
Jesuits
were particularly strong opponents of Jansenism.
[28]
The text
Augustinus
, which propagated Jansenist beliefs, was repudiated by the
Holy See
.
[29]
In
Testem benevolentiae nostrae
, issued on 22 January 1899,
Pope Leo XIII
condemned as heresy,
Americanism
, "the rejection of external spiritual direction as no longer necessary, the extolling of natural over supernatural virtues, the preference of active over passive virtues, the rejection of religious vows as not compatible with Christian liberty, and the adoption of a new method of apologetics and approach to non-Catholics."
[30]
Cardinal James Gibbons
responded to Pope Leo XIII that no educated Catholic Christian in the United States subscribed to these condemned doctrines.
[30]
Last execution of a heretic
[
edit
]
The last case of an execution by the inquisition was that of the schoolmaster
Cayetano Ripoll
, accused of
deism
by the waning
Spanish Inquisition
and hanged on 26 July 1826 in
Valencia
after a two-year trial.
[31]
(Among the positions in violation of the views of the Catholic Church that
Martin Luther
had taken when he was a Catholic priest were, "Haereticos comburi est contra voluntatem Spiritus" (It is contrary to the Spirit to burn heretics). This phrase was the name given to summarized version of his comments that were included in
Exsurge Domine
, a 1520 papal bull
[32]
[33]
that listed his anti-heretic killing sympathies along with 40 other positions Luther had taken in his writings that were allegedly heretical, and which he was ordered to recant. When Luther failed to accept the bull and give a broad recantation of his writings, he was excommunicated in the subsequent 1521 papal bull
Decet Romanum Pontificem
.)
Modern Roman Catholic response to Protestantism
[
edit
]
Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the belief that the
Bible
is the only supremely authoritative source and rule of faith and practice in Christianity (
sola scriptura
), that only by faith alone can anyone ever accept the grace of salvation and not by following God's commandments (
sola fide
), and that the only Christian priesthood can be a universal
priesthood of all believers
.
[34]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
Rechtglaubigkeit und Ketzerei im altesten Christentum
Tubingen 1934 (a second edition, edited by Georg Strecker, Tubingen 1964, was translated as
Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity
1971).
- ^
Bauer (1964:3f) instanced
Origen
,
Commentarius II in Cant.
, and
Sel. in Proverb.
and
Tertullian
,
De praescript. haer.
36 as espousing the traditional theory of the relation of heresy.
- ^
According to Gregory & Tuckett, Bock "is not an expert on the Christian Apocrypha, and his shortcomings are often apparent."
- ^
300 bishops, as well as Constantine I, were present at the Council. Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250.
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
J.D Douglas (ed).
The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church
Paternoster Press/ Zondervan, Exeter/Grand Rapids 1974, art
Heresy
- ^
a
b
c
Cross & Livingstone (eds)
Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
, 1974 art
Heresy
- ^
Oxford English Dictionary
- ^
LSJ
, Definition of ancient Greek
haeresis
- ^
Bible Hub
, All uses of
haeresis
in the New Testament
- ^
Jostein Adna (editor),
The Formation of the Early Church
(Mohr Siebeck 2005
ISBN
978-316148561-9
), p. 342
- ^
Prummer, Dominic M.
Handbook of Moral Theology
Mercer Press 1963, sect. 201ff
- ^
Cross & Livingstone (eds)
Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church
, 1974 arts
apostasy
,
schism
- ^
a
b
Bauer, Walter (1971).
Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity
.
ISBN
0-8006-1363-5
.
- ^
Behr, John
(2013).
Irenaeus of Lyons: Identifying Christianity
. OUP Oxford. pp. 5?6.
ISBN
978-0-19-166781-7
.
[Walter Bauer claimed] that Christianity was a diverse phenomenon from the beginning, that 'varieties of Christianity' arose around the Mediterranean, and that in some places what would later be called 'heretical' was initially normative [...] Although some of Bauer's reconstructions are inaccurate and have been dropped, the idea that Christianity was originally a diverse phenomenon has now been generally accepted.
- ^
Pagels, Elaine
(1979).
The Gnostic Gospels
.
ISBN
0-679-72453-2
.
- ^
Ehrman, Bart D.
(2003).
Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew
. New York: Oxford.
ISBN
0-19-514183-0
.
- ^
Bart D. Ehrman (2005).
Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew
. Oxford University Press. p. 176.
ISBN
978-0-19-518249-1
.
- ^
H. E. W. Turner (2004),
The Pattern of Christian Truth: A Study in the Relations between Orthodoxy and Heresy in the Early Church
, Wipf and Stock Publishers, from the
book-summary
.
- ^
Bock, Darrell L. The Missing Gospels: Unearthing the Truth Behind Alternative Christianities /
ISBN
978-0-7852-1294-2
- ^
Frances M. Young (2006),
The Cambridge History of Christianity Volume 1: Origins to Constantine
, Series: Cambridge History of Christianity
ISBN
978-0-521-81239-9
.
- ^
A History of Heresy in Ancient and Medieval Christianity
- ^
R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz,
Medieval Worlds
(New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 58
- ^
Jay E. Thompson (2009).
A Tale of Five Cities: A History of the Five Patriarchal Cities of the Early Church
. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 138.
ISBN
978-1-4982-7447-0
.
- ^
Maria Victoria Escribano Pano (2010).
"Chapter Three. Heretical texts and
maleficium
in the
Codex Theodosianum
(
CTh.
16.5.34)"
. In Richard Lindsay Gordon; Francisco Marco Simon (eds.).
Magical Practice in the Latin West: Papers from the International Conference Held at the University of Zaragoza, 30 Sept. ? 1st Oct. 2005
. Brill. pp. 135?136.
ISBN
978-90-04-17904-2
.
- ^
a
b
"Catholic Encyclopedia Inquisition"
.
New Advent
. Retrieved
October 3,
2018
.
- ^
a
b
Seelye, James E.; Selby, Shawn (2018).
Shaping North America: From Exploration to the American Revolution
.
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Wilson, Kenneth (2011).
Methodist Theology
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Yrigoyen, Charles Jr.; Warrick, Susan E. (2013).
Historical Dictionary of Methodism
. Scarecrow Press. p. 30.
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Hurst, John Fletcher (1903).
John Wesley the Methodist: A Plain Account of His Life and Work
. Eaton & Mains. p.
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The Wesleyan Methodist Association Magazine
. Vol. 12. R. Abercrombie. 1849. p. 368.
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Brown, Steart J.; Brown, Stewart J.; Brown, Stewart Jay; Tackett, Timothy; Bowie, K. Scott; Young, Frances Margaret; Mitchell, Margaret Mary; Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W.; Angold, Michael; Noble, Thomas F. X.; Baranowski, Roberta A.; Smith, Julia M. H.; Rubin, Miri; Hsia, R. Po-chia; Gilley, Sheridan; Simons, Walter; McLeod, Hugh; Stanley, Brian (2006).
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Brechka, Frank T. (2012).
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Heffron, Christopher (14 October 2011).
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"Daily TWiP ? The Spanish Inquisition executes its last victim today in 1826"
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Bainton, Roland H.
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Fredericq, Paul (1900).
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Sources
[
edit
]
- Gregory, Andrew; Tuckett, Christopher, eds. (2015).
The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Apocrypha
. Oxford University Press.
- Keating, Karl (1990),
Catholicism and Fundamentalism: The Attack on Romanism by Bible Christians
, San Francisco: Ignatius Press,
ISBN
9780898701777
Further reading
[
edit
]