The
early history of Switzerland
begins with the earliest settlements up to the beginning of
Habsburg
rule, which in 1291 gave rise to the independence movement in the central
cantons
of
Uri
,
Schwyz
, and
Unterwalden
and the
growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy
during the
Late Middle Ages
.
Prehistory
[
edit
]
Paleolithic to Mesolithic
[
edit
]
A hand-axe fashioned by
Homo erectus
has been found in
Pratteln
, which has been dated to 300,000 years ago.
[1]
Neanderthal
presence is known from the Grotte de Cotencher in
Neuchatel
, dating to 70,000 years ago
[2]
and from the caves of
Wildkirchli
in the
Appenzell Alps
, dated to about 40,000 years ago.
[3]
Anatomically modern humans
reached Central Europe 30,000 years ago,
[4]
but most of what is now Switzerland was covered by glaciers during the
Last Glacial Maximum
(
Wurm glaciation
). The ice-free parts, northern Switzerland along the
High Rhine
and part of the
Aar basin
, were exposed to
permafrost
.
Human habitation in the
Swiss Plateau
can be shown for the beginning
Mesolithic
, in
Wetzikon-Robenhausen
beginning around 10,000 years ago.
Neolithic to Copper Age
[
edit
]
The
Neolithic
reached the Swiss plateau before 7,000 years ago (late 6th millennium BC), dominated by the
Linear Pottery culture
.
The area was relatively densely populated, as is attested to by the many archeological findings from that period. Remains of
pile dwellings
have been found in the shallow areas of many lakes, attributed to archaeological cultures such as
Cortaillod
,
Pfyn
and
Horgen
. Artifacts dated to the 5th millennium BC were discovered at the
Schnidejoch
in 2003 to 2005.
[5]
The pre-Indo-European population of the Alpine region is typified by
Otzi the Iceman
, an individual of the late 4th millennium BC found in the
Austrian Alps
(some 25 km east of the
Swiss border
). The
Bell Beaker culture
marks the transition from the Chalcolithic to the early Bronze Age.
-
Pfyn culture
settlement at Breitenloo, c. 3700 BC
-
Neolithic implements, pottery and foodstuffs, Cortaillod culture
-
Crystal arrowhead,
Cortaillod culture
, c. 3500 BC
-
Wooden wheel fragment, Horgen culture
-
-
Alpine copper axe, 4th millennium BC
-
Anthropomorphic stele,
Sion
,
Bell Beaker culture
,
c.
2700 BC
-
Copper necklace and ornaments, c. 2700 BC
Bronze Age
[
edit
]
In the 3rd millennium BC, Switzerland lay on the south-western outskirts of the
Corded Ware
horizon, entering the early
Bronze Age
(
Bell Beaker culture
) in step with Central Europe, in the late centuries of the 3rd millennium. The Early Bronze Age
Rhone culture
in western Switzerland (
c.
2200
-1500 BC) developed from the Bell Beaker culture and was closely related to the
Unetice culture
in central Europe. This was followed by the
Tumulus culture
(
c.
1500
-1300 BC) in the Middle Bronze Age, and the
Urnfield culture
in the Late Bronze Age (
c.
1300 BC
). Settlements included
lakeside villages
and fortified settlements on elevated sites.
The
Bronze Hand of Preles
dating from the 16th-15th century BC, is a unique find from the Tumulus culture period.
[6]
Described as "the earliest metal representation of a human body part ever found in Europe",
[7]
it may have been a ritual object, or mounted on a
standard
like similar metal hands known from the
Iron Age
,
[8]
or possibly a
prosthesis
.
[9]
It was found in a grave along with a bronze hair-ring, pin and dagger. The hand had a golden bracelet or cuff decorated with solar motifs.
[10]
Iron Age
[
edit
]
The Swiss plateau lay in the western part of the Early Iron Age
Hallstatt culture
,
[11]
and it participated in the early
La Tene culture
(named for the type site at
Lake Neuchatel
) which arose out of the Hallstatt background from the 5th century BC.
[12]
By the final centuries BC, the Swiss plateau and Ticino were settled by
Continental Celtic
speaking peoples (
Gauls
): the
Helvetii
and
Vindelici
inhabited the western and eastern part of the Swiss plateau, respectively, and the
Lugano
area
by the
Lepontii
.
The interior Alpine valleys of eastern Switzerland (
Grisons
) were inhabited by the non-Celtic
Raetians
.
The distribution of La Tene culture burials in Switzerland indicates that the Swiss plateau between
Lausanne
and
Winterthur
was relatively densely populated. Settlement centres existed in the
Aare
valley between
Thun
and
Bern
, and between
Lake Zurich
and the
Reuss
. The
Valais
and the regions around
Bellinzona
and
Lugano
also seem to have been well-populated; however, those lay outside the Helvetian borders.
Almost all the Celtic
oppida
were built in the vicinity of the larger rivers of the Swiss plateau.
About a dozen oppida are known in Switzerland (some twenty including uncertain candidate sites), not all of which were occupied during the same time. For most of them, no contemporary name has survived; in cases where a pre-Roman name has been recorded, it is given in brackets.
[13]
The largest were the one in
Bern
-Engehalbinsel (presumably
Brenodurum
, the name recorded on the
Bern zinc tablet
[14]
), on the
Aare
, and the one in
Altenburg-Rheinau
on the
Rhine
.
Of intermediate size were those of Bois de Chatel,
Avenches
(abandoned with the foundation of
Aventicum
as the capital of the Roman province),
Jensberg
(near
vicus Petinesca
,
Mont Vully
, all within a day's march from the one in Bern, the
Oppidum Zurich-Lindenhof
at the
Lake Zurich
?
Limmat
?
Sihl
triangled
Lindenhof hill
, and the
Oppidum Uetliberg
, overlooking the Sihl and Lake Zurich shore.
Smaller oppida were at
Geneva
(
Genava
),
Lausanne
(
Lousonna
) on the shores of
Lake Geneva
, at
Sermuz
on the upper end of
Lake Neuchatel
, at
Eppenberg
and
Windisch
(
Vindonissa
) along the lower Aar,
and at
Mont Chaibeuf
and
Mont Terri
in the
Jura Mountains
, the territory of the
Rauraci
.
A female who died in about 200 B.C found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in
Aussersihl
. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf and a pendant made of glass and amber beads were also discovered with the woman.
[15]
[16]
[17]
-
-
Gold jewellery, Hallstatt culture, c. 550 BC
-
-
-
Mont Vully
oppidum, La Tene culture
-
Carnyx
ornament, La Tene culture,
c.
200 BC
-
Lake depositions at
La Tene
-
Reconstructed Celtic Bridge at La Tene, 3rd century BC
Roman era
[
edit
]
In 58 BCE, the
Helvetii
tried to evade migratory pressure from
Germanic tribes
by moving into
Gaul
, but were stopped and defeated at
Bibracte
(near modern-day
Autun
) by
Julius Caesar
's armies and then sent back. In 15 BCE,
Tiberius
and Drusus conquered the Alps, and the region became integrated into the
Roman Empire
:
[18]
the Helvetii settlement area became part first of
Gallia Belgica
and later of the province of
Germania Superior
, while the eastern part was integrated into the Roman province of
Raetia
.
The following 300 years saw extensive Roman settlement, including the construction of a road network and the founding of many settlements and cities. The center of Roman occupation was at
Aventicum
(
Avenches
), other cities were founded at
Arbor Felix
(
Arbon
),
Augusta Raurica
(Kaiseraugst near Basel),
Basilea
(
Basel
),
Curia
(
Chur
),
Genava
(
Geneva
),
Lousanna
(
Lausanne
),
Octodurum
(
Martigny
, controlling the
pass
of the
Great St. Bernard
),
Salodurum
(
Solothurn
),
Turicum
(
Zurich
) and other places.
Military garrisons
existed at
Tenedo
(
Zurzach
) and
Vindonissa
(
Windisch
).
[18]
The Romans also developed the
Great St. Bernard Pass
beginning in the year 47, and in 69 part of the legions of
Vitellius
used it to traverse the
Alps
. The passes were expanded from dirt trails to narrow paved roads.
[18]
Between 101 and 260, the legions moved out of the region, allowing trade to expand. In Raetia, Roman culture and language became dominant.
[18]
Nearly 2,000 years later, some of the population of
Graubunden
still speak
Romansh
which is descended from
Vulgar Latin
.
In 259,
Alamanni
tribes overran the
Limes
and caused widespread devastation of Roman cities and settlements. The Roman empire managed to reestablish the
Rhine
as the border, and the cities on Swiss territory were rebuilt. However, it was now a frontier province, and consequently the new Roman cities were smaller and much more fortified.
Christianization and post-Roman era
[
edit
]
In the late Roman period in the 3rd and 4th centuries, the
Christianization
of the region began. Legends of Christian martyrs such as
Felix and Regula
in
Zurich
probably are based on events that occurred during the
persecution of Christians
under
Diocletian
around 298. The story of the
Theban Legion
, which was martyred near
Saint Maurice-en-Valais
in
Valais
, figures into the histories of many towns in Switzerland.
[18]
The first bishoprics were founded in the 4th and 5th centuries in
Basel
(documented in 346),
Martigny
(doc. 381, moved to
Sion
in 585),
Geneva
(doc. 441), and
Chur
(doc. 451). There is evidence from the 6th century for a bishopric in
Lausanne
, which may have been moved from Avenches.
With the fall of the
Western Roman Empire
, Germanic tribes moved in.
Burgundians
settled in the
Jura
, the
Rhone
valley and the Alps south of
Lake Geneva
; while in the north,
Alemannic
settlers crossed the
Rhine
in 406 and slowly assimilated the
Gallo-Roman
population, or made it retreat into the mountains. Burgundy became a part of the
Frankish
kingdom in 534; two years later, the dukedom of
Alemannia
followed suit.
The Burgundy kings furthered the Christianization through newly founded monasteries, e.g. at
Romainmotier
or
St. Maurice
in the
Valais
in 515. In the Alaman part, only isolated Christian communities continued to exist; the
Germanic faith
including the worship of
Wuodan
was prevalent. The Irish monks
Columbanus
and
Gallus
re-introduced Christian faith in the early 7th century. The
Bishopric of Konstanz
also was founded at that time.
Switzerland in the Middle Ages
[
edit
]
Early Middle Ages
[
edit
]
Under the
Carolingian
kings, the
feudal system
proliferated, and monasteries and bishoprics were important bases for maintaining the rule. The
Treaty of Verdun
of 843 assigned the western part of modern Switzerland (
Upper Burgundy
) to
Lotharingia
, ruled by
Lothair I
, and the eastern part (
Alemannia
) to the eastern kingdom of
Louis the German
that would become the
Holy Roman Empire
. The boundary between
Alamania
, ruled by Louis, and western
Burgundy
, ruled by Lothar, ran along the lower
Aare
, turning towards the south at the
Rhine
, passing west of
Lucerne
and across the
Alps
along the upper
Rhone
to
Saint Gotthard Pass
.
Louis the German in 853 granted his lands in the
Reuss
valley to the monastery of St Felix and Regula in Zurich (modern day
Fraumunster
) of which his daughter Hildegard was the first abbess.
[19]
According to legend this occurred after a
stag
bearing an illuminated
crucifix
between his
antlers
appeared to him in the marshland outside the town, at the shore of
Lake Zurich
. However, there is evidence that the monastery was already in existence before 853. The Fraumunster is across the river from the Grossmunster, which according to legend was founded by Charlemagne himself, as his horse fell to his knees on the spot where the martyrs
Felix and Regula
were buried.
When the land was granted to the monastery, it was exempt from all feudal lords except the king and later the
Holy Roman Emperor
(a condition known as
Imperial immediacy
; in German
Reichsfreiheit
or
Reichsunmittelbarkeit
). The privileged position of the abbey (reduced taxes and greater autonomy) encouraged the other men of the valley to put themselves under the authority of abbey. By doing so they gained the advantages of the Imperial immediacy and grew used to the relative freedom and autonomy.
[19]
The only source of royal or imperial authority was the
advocatus
or
Vogt
of the abbey which was given to one family after another by the emperor as a sign of trust.
In the 10th century, the rule of the Carolingians waned:
Magyars
destroyed
Basel
in 917 and
St. Gallen
in 926, and
Saracens
ravaged the
Valais
after 920 and sacked the monastery of St. Maurice in 939. The
Conradines
(von
Wetterau
) started a long time rule over
Swabia
during this time. Only after the victory of king
Otto I
over the Magyars in 955 in the
Battle of Lechfeld
were the Swiss territories reintegrated into the empire.
High Middle Ages
[
edit
]
King
Rudolph III
of the
Arelat kingdom
(r. 993?1032) gave the Valais as his fiefdom to the
Bishop of Sion
in 999, and when Burgundy and thus also the Valais became part of the Holy Roman Empire in 1032, the bishop was also appointed count of the Valais. The Arelat mostly existed on paper throughout the 11th to 14th centuries, its remnants passing to
France
in 1378, but without its Swiss portions,
Bern
and
Aargau
having come under
Zahringer
and
Habsburg
rule already by the 12th century, and the
County of Savoy
was detached from the Arelat just before its dissolution, in 1361.
The dukes of
Zahringen
founded many cities, the most important being
Freiburg
in 1120,
Fribourg
in 1157, and
Bern
in 1191. The Zahringer dynasty ended with the death of
Berchtold V
in 1218, and their cities subsequently thus became
independent
, while the dukes of
Kyburg
competed with the house of
Habsburg
over control of the rural regions of the former Zahringer territory. When the house of Zahringen died out in 1218 the office of Vogt over the Abbey of St Felix and Regula in Zurich was granted to the Habsburgs, however it was quickly revoked.
[19]
The rise of the Habsburg dynasty gained momentum when their main local competitor, the
Kyburg dynasty
, died out and they could thus bring much of the territory south of the Rhine under their control. Subsequently, they managed within only a few generations to extend their influence through
Swabia
in south-eastern Germany to
Austria
.
Under the
Hohenstaufen
rule, the alpine passes in Raetia and the
St. Gotthard Pass
gained importance. Especially the latter became an important direct route through the mountains. The construction of the "
Devil’s Bridge
" (
Teufelsbrucke
) across the
Schollenenschlucht
in 1198 led to a marked increase in traffic on the mule track over the pass.
Frederick II
accorded the
Reichsfreiheit
to
Schwyz
in 1240
[19]
in the
Freibrief von Faenza
in an attempt to place the important pass under his direct control, and his son and for some time co-regent Henry VII had already given the same privileges to the valley of
Uri
in 1231 (the
Freibrief von Hagenau
).
Unterwalden
was
de facto
reichsfrei
, since most of its territory belonged to monasteries, which had become independent even earlier in 1173 under
Frederick I "Barbarossa"
and in 1213 under Frederick II. The city of Zurich became
reichsfrei
in 1218.
While some of the "Forest Communities" (
Waldstatten
, i.e. Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden) were
reichsfrei
the Habsburgs still claimed authority over some villages and much of the surrounding land. While Schwyz was
reichsfrei
in 1240, the castle of
Neu Habsburg
was built in 1244 to help control
Lake Lucerne
and restrict the neighboring Forest Communities.
[19]
In 1245 Frederick II was
excommunicated
by
Pope Innocent IV
at the
Council of Lyon
. When the Habsburgs took the side of the pope, some of the Forest Communities took Frederick's side. At this time the castle of Neu Habsburg was attacked and damaged.
[19]
When Frederick failed against the Pope, those who had taken his side were threatened with excommunication and the Habsburgs gained additional power. In 1273 the rights to the Forest Communities were sold by a cadet branch of the Habsburgs to the head of the family,
Rudolf I
. A few months later he became
King of the Romans
, a title that would become Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolph was therefore the ruler of all the
reichsfrei
communities as well as the lands that he ruled as a Habsburg.
He instituted a strict rule in his homelands and raised the taxes tremendously to finance wars and further territorial acquisitions. As king, he finally had also become the direct
liege lord
of the Forest Communities, which thus saw their previous independence curtailed. On 16 April 1291 Rudolph bought all the rights over the town of Lucerne and the abbey estates in Unterwalden from
Murbach Abbey
in
Alsace
. The Forest Communities saw their trade route over Lake Lucerne cut off and feared losing their independence. When Rudolph died on 15 July 1291 the Communities prepared to defend themselves. On 1 August 1291 an Everlasting League was made between the Forest Communities for mutual defense against a common enemy.
[19]
In the Valais, increasing tensions between the
bishops of Sion
and the Counts of Savoy led to a war beginning in 1260. The war ended after the Battle at the
Scheuchzermatte
near
Leuk
in 1296, where the Savoy forces were crushed by the bishop's army, supported by forces from
Bern
. After the peace of 1301, Savoy kept only the lower part of the Valais, while the bishop controlled the upper Valais.
The 14th century
[
edit
]
With the opening of the
Gotthard Pass
in the 13th century, the territory of
Central Switzerland
, primarily the valley of
Uri
, had gained great strategical importance and was granted
Reichsfreiheit
by the
Hohenstaufen
emperors. This became the nucleus of the
Swiss Confederacy
, which during the 1330s to 1350s grew to incorporate its core of "eight cantons" (
Acht Orte
)
The 14th century in the territory of modern Switzerland was a time of transition from the old feudal order administrated by regional families of lower nobility (such as the houses of
Bubenberg
,
Eschenbach
,
Falkenstein
,
Freiburg
,
Frohburg
,
Grunenberg
,
Greifenstein
,
Homberg
,
Kyburg
,
Landenberg
,
Rapperswil
,
Toggenburg
,
Zahringen
etc.) and the development of the great powers of the late medieval period, primarily the first stage of the meteoric rise of the
House of Habsburg
, which was confronted with rivals in
Burgundy
and
Savoy
. The free
imperial cities
,
prince-bishoprics
and monasteries were forced to look for allies in this unstable climate, and entered a series of pacts. Thus, the multi-polar order of the
feudalism
of the
High Middle Ages
, while still visible in documents of the first half of the 14th century such as the
Codex Manesse
or the
Zurich armorial
gradually gave way to the politics of the Late Middle Ages, with the Swiss Confederacy wedged between
Habsburg Austria
, the
Burgundy
,
France
,
Savoy
and
Milan
.
Bern
had taken an unfortunate stand against Habsburg in the
battle of Schosshalde
in 1289, but recovered enough to confront Fribourg (
Gummenenkrieg
) and then to inflict a decisive defeat on a coalition force of Habsburg, Savoy and
Basel
in the
battle of Laupen
in 1339. At the same time, Habsburg attempted to gain influence over the cities of
Lucerne
and
Zurich
, with riots or attempted coups reported for the years 1343 and 1350 respectively. This situation led the cities of Lucerne, Zurich and Bern to attach themselves to the Swiss Confederacy in 1332, 1351, and 1353 respectively.
As elsewhere in Europe, Switzerland suffered a crisis in the middle of the century, triggered by the
Black Death
followed by social upheaval and
moral panics
, often directed
against the Jews
as in the
Basel massacre
of 1349. To this was added the catastrophic
1356 Basel earthquake
which devastated a wide region, and the city of
Basel
was destroyed almost completely in the ensuing fire.
The balance of power remained precarious during the 1350s to 1380s, with Habsburg trying to regain lost influence;
Albrecht II
besieged Zurich unsuccessfully, but imposed an unfavourable peace on the city in the treaty of Regensburg. In 1375, Habsburg tried to regain control over the
Aargau
with the help of
Gugler
mercenaries. After a number of minor clashes (
Sorenberg
,
Nafels
), it was with the decisive Swiss victory at the
battle of Sempach
1386 that this situation was resolved. Habsburg moved its focus eastward and while it continued to grow in influence (ultimately rising to the most powerful dynasty of
early modern Europe
), it lost all possessions in its ancestral territory with the Swiss annexation of the Aargau in 1416, from which time the Swiss Confederacy stood for the first time as a political entity controlling a contiguous territory.
Meanwhile, in
Basel
, the citizenry was also divided into a pro-Habsburg and an anti-Habsburg faction, known as
Sterner
and
Psitticher
, respectively. The citizens of greater Basel bought most of the privileges from the bishop in 1392, and from this time on, though Basel nominally remained the domain of the prince-bishops until the Reformation, it was de facto governed by its city council, which since 1382 had been dominated by the city's guilds. Similarly, the bishop of
Geneva
granted the citizenry substantial political rights in 1387.
Other parts of western Switzerland remained under the control of Burgundy and Savoy throughout the 14th century; the
Barony of Vaud
was incorporated into Savoy in 1359 and was annexed by Bern only in the context of the
Swiss Reformation
, in 1536. In the
Valais
, the
bishop of Sion
, allied with
Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy
, was in conflict over the
Walser
-settled upper Valais during the 1340s. Amadeus pacified the region in 1352, but there was renewed unrest in 1353. In 1355, the towns of the upper Valais formed a defensive pact and negotiated a compromise peace treaty in 1361. This lasted until a renewed uprising in response to the 1383 accession of
Amadeus VII, Count of Savoy
. Amadeus invaded the Valais in 1387, but after his death in a hunting accident, his mother, Bonne de Bourbon, made peace with the Seven Tithings of the upper Valais, restoring the
status quo ante
of 1301. From this time, the upper Valais was mostly independent de facto, preparing the
Republican structure
that would emerge in the early modern period.
In the
Grisons
, similar structures of local self-government arose at the same time, with the
League of God's House
founded in 1367, followed by the
Grey League
in 1395, both in response to the expansion of the House of Habsburg.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Archaologie Baselland
- ^
Swiss Info - Meet a Neanderthal Woman from one of Europe's Oldest Cave Sites
- ^
Wildkirchli
in
German
,
French
and
Italian
in the online
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
.
- ^
Before between 1,300 and 1,200 generations ago according to a simulation in
Currat, M.; Excoffier, L. (2004).
"Modern Humans Did Not Admix with Neanderthals during Their Range Expansion into Europe"
.
PLOS Biol
.
2
(12): e421.
doi
:
10.1371/journal.pbio.0020421
.
PMC
532389
.
PMID
15562317
.
(
Figure 2
)
- ^
Associated Press
(2006-01-18).
"5000 Jahre alter Pfeilbogen im Berner Oberland gefunden"
(in German).
NZZ
. Archived from
the original
on 2009-09-12
. Retrieved
2008-11-14
.
In a later
NZZ article
(21 August 2008), the date is revised to c.4500BC instead of c.3000BC
(in German)
- ^
"Photo of the Bronze Hand of Preles"
.
- ^
"3,500-Year-Old Hand is Europe's Earliest Metal Body Part"
.
National Geographic
. 2018. Archived from
the original
on February 19, 2021.
- ^
"Das bronzezeitliche Grab und die Bronzehand von Preles. Ergebnisse der Table Ronde vom 30.Oktober 2019 in Bern"
.
- ^
"Was This Man a Bronze-Age Cyborg? His Metal Hand May Have Been a Prosthetic"
.
Live Science
. 2018.
- ^
Garrow, Duncan; Wilkin, Neil (2022).
The World of Stonehenge
. London: British Museum Press. p. 21.
ISBN
978-07141-2349-3
.
- ^
N. Muller-Scheeßel,
Die Hallstattkultur und ihre raumliche Differenzierung. Der West- und Osthallstattkreis aus forschungsgeschichtlicher Sicht
(2000)
- ^
La Tene site description
Archived
2009-02-07 at the
Wayback Machine
(in French)
- ^
Andres Furger-Gunti: Die Helvetier: Kulturgeschichte eines Keltenvolkes. Neue Zurcher Zeitung, Zurich 1984, pp. 50?58.
- ^
Bern, Engehalbinsel, Romerbad
Archived
2007-09-30 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
July 2019, Laura Geggel-Associate Editor 30 (30 July 2019).
"Iron Age Celtic Woman Wearing Fancy Clothes Buried in This 'Tree Coffin' in Switzerland"
.
livescience.com
. Retrieved
2020-04-05
.
CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link
)
- ^
Solly, Meilan.
"This Iron Age Celtic Woman Was Buried in a Hollowed-Out Tree Trunk"
.
Smithsonian Magazine
. Retrieved
2020-04-05
.
- ^
"Kelte trifft Keltin: Ergebnisse zu einem aussergewohnlichen Grabfund - Stadt Zurich"
.
www.stadt-zuerich.ch
(in German)
. Retrieved
2020-04-05
.
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Roman Switzerland
accessed November 13, 2008
- ^
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911).
"Switzerland/History/Origins"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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