Missionary work of the Catholic Church
Missionary
work of the
Catholic Church
has often been undertaken outside the geographically defined
parishes
and
dioceses
by
religious orders
who have people and material resources to spare, and some of which specialized in missions. Eventually, parishes and dioceses would be organized worldwide, often after an intermediate phase as an
apostolic prefecture
or
apostolic vicariate
. Catholic mission has predominantly been carried out by the
Latin Church
in practice.
In the
Roman Curia
, missionary work is organised by the
Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
.
History
[
edit
]
New Testament times
[
edit
]
| This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
January 2010
)
|
The New Testament missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of
St Paul
was extensive throughout the
Roman Empire
.
Middle Ages
[
edit
]
During the Middle Ages, Christian
monasteries
and missionaries (such as
Saint Patrick
and
Adalbert of Prague
) fostered formal education and learning of religion, beyond the boundaries of the
old Roman Empire
. In the seventh century,
Gregory the Great
sent missionaries, including
Augustine of Canterbury
, into England. The
Hiberno-Scottish mission
began in 563 CE.
In the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries,
Franciscans
(such as
William of Rubruck
,
John of Montecorvino
, and Giovanni ed' Magnolia) were sent as missionaries to the Near and Far East. Their travels took them as far as China, in an attempt to convert the advancing
Mongols
to Christianity, especially the
Great Khans
of the
Mongol Empire
. (
See also
Catholic Church in China
.
)
Age of Discovery
[
edit
]
During the
Age of Discovery
, the
Roman Catholic Church
established a number of
missions
in the Americas and other colonies through the
Augustinians
,
Franciscans
, and
Dominicans
in order to spread Catholicism in the New World and to convert the
indigenous peoples of the Americas
and other indigenous people. At the same time, missionaries such as
Francis Xavier
as well as other
Jesuits
, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans were moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa. These are some of the most well-known missions in history.
In the empires ruled by both
Portugal
and
Spain
, religion was an integral part of the state and evangelization was seen as having both secular and spiritual benefits. Wherever these powers attempted to expand their territories or influence, missionaries would soon follow. By the
Treaty of Tordesillas
, the two powers divided the world between them into exclusive spheres of influence, trade, and colonization. The Roman Catholic world order was challenged by the
Netherlands
and
England
. Theoretically, it was repudiated by
Grotius
's
Mare Liberum
. Portugal's and Spain's colonial policies were also challenged by the Roman Catholic Church itself. The
Vatican
founded the
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide
in 1622 and attempted to separate the churches from the influence of the
Iberian
kingdoms.
While missions in areas ruled by Spanish and Portuguese, and to a lesser extent, the French, are associated with
cultural imperialism
and oppression, and often operated under the sponsorship and consent of colonial governments, those in other portions of the world (notably
Matteo Ricci
's
Jesuit
mission to China, and the work of other Jesuit missionaries in the Nagasaki region in Japan) were focused on the conversion of individuals within existing social and political structures, and often operated without the consent of local government.
India
[
edit
]
Early missionaries
[
edit
]
John of Monte Corvino
was a Franciscan sent to China to become prelate of Peking in around 1307. He traveled from Persia and moved down by sea to India in 1291, to the
Madras
region or "Country of St. Thomas". There he preached for thirteen months and baptized about one hundred people. From there Monte Corvino wrote home, in December 1291 (or 1292), giving one of the earliest noteworthy accounts of the Coromandel coast furnished by any Western European. Traveling by sea from Mailapur, he reached China in 1294, appearing in the capital "Cambaliech" (now Beijing).
[1]
Friar
Odoric of Pordenone
arrived in India in 1321. He visited Malabar, touching at Pandarani (20 m. north of Calicut) at Cranganore and at Kulam or Quilon, proceeding thence, apparently, to Ceylon and to the shrine of St Thomas at Maylapur near Madras. He writes that he had found the place where Thomas was buried.
The French Dominican missionary Father
Jordanus
Catalani followed in 1321?22. He reported to Rome, apparently from somewhere on the west coast of India, that he had given Christian burial to four martyred monks. Jordanus is known for his 1329
Mirabilia
describing the marvels of the East: he furnished the best account of Indian regions and the Christians, the products, climate, manners, customs, fauna and flori given by any European in the Middle Ages ? superior even to Marco Polo's.
In 1347,
Giovanni de Marignolli
visited the shrine of St Thomas near the modern Madras, and then proceeded to what he calls the kingdom of Saba and identifies with the Sheba of Scripture, but which seems from various particulars to have been Java. Taking ship again for Malabar on his way to Europe, he encountered great storms.
Another prominent Indian traveler was Joseph, priest over Cranganore. He journeyed to Babylon in 1490 and then sailed to Europe and visited Portugal, Rome, and Venice before returning to India. He helped to write a book about his travels entitled
The Travels of Joseph the Indian
which was widely disseminated across Europe.
Arrival of the Portuguese
[
edit
]
The introduction of Catholicism in India begins from the first decade of 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese missionaries there. In the 16th century, the proselytization of Asia was linked to the
Portuguese colonial policy
. With the Papal bull
Romanus Pontifex
[2]
written on 8 January 1455 by
Pope Nicholas V
to
King Afonso V
of
Portugal
, the patronage for the propagation of the Christian faith (see "
Padroado
") in Asia was given to the Portuguese, who were rewarded with the right of conquest.
[3]
The missionaries of the different orders (
Franciscans
,
Dominicans
,
Jesuits
,
Augustinians
, etc.) flocked out with the conquerors, and began at once to build churches along the coastal districts wherever the Portuguese power made itself felt.
The history of Portuguese missionaries in India starts with the neo-apostles who reached
Kappad
near Kozhikode on 20 May 1498 along with
Vasco da Gama
,
[4]
which represented less than 2% of the total population
[5]
and was the largest Christian church within India.
[4]
He was seeking to form anti-
Islamic
alliances with pre-existing Christian nations. The lucrative spice trade attracted the Portuguese crown.
[6]
During the second expedition under Captain
Pedro Alvares Cabral
, the Portuguese fleet consisted of 13 ships and 18 priests anchored at Cochin on 26 November 1500. Cabral soon won the goodwill of the
Raja of Cochin
who allowed four priests to do apostolic work among the early Christian communities scattered in and around Cochin. Thus missionaries established a Portuguese mission in 1500. Dom
Francisco de Almeida
, the first Portuguese Viceroy, got permission from the Kochi Raja to build two church edifices ?
Santa Cruz Basilica
(1505) and
St. Francis Church
(1506) using stones and mortar which were unheard of at that time, as local prejudices were against such a structure except for a royal palace or a temple.
In the beginning of the 16th century, the whole of the East was under the jurisdiction of the
Archdiocese of Lisbon
. On 12 June 1514, Cochin and Goa became two prominent mission stations under the newly created
Diocese of Funchal
in
Madeira
, in the Atlantic. In 1534
Pope Paul III
by the Bull Quequem Reputamus raised Funchal to an
archdiocese
with
Goa
as its
suffragan
, placing the whole of India under the
diocese of Goa
. This created an
episcopal see
?
suffragan
to
Funchal
, with a jurisdiction extending potentially over all past and future conquests from the
Cape of Good Hope
to
China
.
The first converts to Christianity in Goa were native Goan women who married Portuguese men that arrived with Afonso de Albuquerque during the
Portuguese conquest of Goa
in 1510.
[7]
During the mid-16th century, the city of
Goa
, was the center of
Christianization
in the East.
[8]
The Portuguese rulers implemented state policies encouraging and even rewarding conversions among
Hindu
subjects, it would be false to ascribe the large number of conversions to force. The rapid rise of converts in Goa was mostly the result of Portuguese economic and political control over the Hindus, who were vassals of the Portuguese crown.
[9]
At the same time many
New Christians
from Portugal migrated to India as a result of the
inquisition in Portugal
. Many of them were suspected of being
Crypto-Jews
, converted Jews who were secretly practicing their old religion, and were considered a threat to the solidarity of Christian belief.
[10]
Saint
Francis Xavier
, in a 1545 letter to
John III of Portugal
, requested the
Goan Inquisition
, but it was not set up until 1560.
[10]
[11]
In 1557
Goa
was made an independent archbishopric, with suffragan sees at
Cochin
and
Malacca
. The whole of the East was under the jurisdiction of
Goa
and its boundaries extended to almost half of the world: from the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa, to Burma, China, and Japan in East Asia. In 1576 the suffragan See of Macao (China) was added, and in 1588 that of Funai in Japan.
[
citation needed
]
In 1597 the death of the last
metropolitan bishop
,
Archdeacon Abraham
of the
Saint Thomas Christians
, an ancient body formerly part of the
Church of the East
gave the then Archbishop of Goa
Menezes
an opportunity to bring the native church under the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. He was able to secure the submission of
Archdeacon George
, the highest remaining representative of the native church hierarchy. Menezes convened the
Synod of Diamper
between 20 and 26 June 1599,
[13]
which introduced a number of reforms to the church and brought it fully into the
Latin Church
of the Catholic Church. Following the Synod, Menezes consecrated Jesuit Francis Ros as Archbishop of the
Archdiocese of Angamale
for the Saint Thomas Christians ? another suffragan see to Archdiocese of Goa ? and
Latinisation
of St Thomas Christians started. Most eventually accepted the Catholic faith but some switched to West Syrian rite. The
Saint Thomas Christians
were pressured to acknowledge the authority of the
Pope
.
[13]
Resentment of these measures led to some part of the community to join the
Archdeacon
Thomas
in swearing never to submit to the Portuguese or to accept Communion with Rome, in the
Coonan Cross Oath
in 1653.
[
citation needed
]
The
Diocese of Angamaly
was transferred to
Diocese of Craganore
in 1605, and in 1606 a sixth suffragan see to Goa was established at San Thome, Mylapore, near the modern Madras. The suffragan sees added later to Goa were the prelacy of Mozambique in 1612 and Peking and Nanking in China in 1690.
[
citation needed
]
Missionary work progressed on a large scale and with great success along the western coasts, chiefly at Chaul, Bombay, Salsette, Bassein, Damao, and Diu, as well as on the eastern coasts at San Thome of Mylapore as far as Bengal. In the southern districts the Jesuit mission in Madura was the most famous. It extended to the Krishna River, with a number of outlying stations beyond it. The mission of Cochin on the Malabar Coast was also one of the most fruitful. Several missions were also established in the interior northwards, e.g., that of Agra and Lahore in 1570 and that of Tibet in 1624. Still, even with these efforts, the greater part even of the coast line was by no means fully worked, and many vast tracts of the interior northwards were practically untouched.
[
citation needed
]
With the decline of Portuguese power other colonial powers ? the Dutch and British and Christian organisations ? gained influence.
[
citation needed
]
Japan
[
edit
]
Portuguese shipping arrived in Japan in 1543
[14]
and
Catholic
missionary activities in Japan began in earnest around 1549, performed in the main by
Portuguese
-sponsored
Jesuits
until
Spanish
-sponsored
mendicant
orders such as the
Franciscans
and
Dominicans
gained access to Japan. Of the 95 Jesuits who worked in Japan up to 1600, 57 were Portuguese, 20 were Spaniards and 18 Italian.
[15]
Jesuit Fathers
Francisco Xavier
,
[16]
[17]
Cosme de Torres, and John Fernandes were the first to arrive at
Kagoshima
with hopes of bringing Christianity and Catholicism to Japan.
Spain and Portugal disputed the attribution of Japan. Since neither could colonize it, the exclusive right to propagate Christianity in Japan meant the exclusive right to trade with Japan. Portuguese-sponsored Jesuits under
Alessandro Valignano
took the lead in proselytizing in Japan over the objection of the Spaniards. This fait accompli was approved in
Pope Gregory XIII
's
papal bull
of 1575, which decided that Japan belonged to the Portuguese diocese of
Macau
. In 1588 the diocese of Funai (
Nagasaki
) was founded under Portuguese protection.
In rivalry with the Jesuits, Spanish-sponsored
mendicant orders
entered Japan via
Manila
. While criticizing Jesuit activities, they actively lobbied the Pope. Their campaigns resulted in
Pope Clement VIII
's decree of 1600 which allowed Spanish
friars
to enter Japan via the Portuguese Indies, and
Pope Paul V
's decree of 1608 which abolished the restrictions on the route. The Portuguese accused Spanish Jesuits of working for their homeland instead of their patron.
China
[
edit
]
The history of the
missions
of the
Society of Jesus
or Jesuits in
Ming
and
Qing
China
stands as one of the notable events in the early history of relations between China and the
Western world
, as well as a prominent example of relations between two cultures and belief systems in the pre-modern age. The missionary efforts and other work of the Jesuits in 16th, 17th, and 18th century played a significant role in introducing European
science
and
culture
to China. Their work laid much of the foundation for much of
Christian culture in Chinese society
today. Members of the Jesuit delegation to China were perhaps the most influential Christian missionaries in that country between the earliest period of the religion up until the 19th century, when significant numbers of
Catholic
and
Protestant missions
developed.
Despite
earlier evangelization under the Tang
and
Yuan
, by the 16th century there is no reliable evidence for any practicing Christians remaining in China. The
Portuguese
explorer
Jorge Alvares
reached
Guangdong
in 1513, establishing direct maritime connection between China and Europe; within six years of the Jesuit's 1540 founding, two Chinese boys were enrolled in their
college
in
Goa
,
India
. One of them, known by his baptismal name Antonio, travelled with the Jesuit founder
St
Francis Xavier
when he tried to begin missionary work in China in the early 1550s. Unable to receive permission to enter the country, however, Xavier died on
Shangchuan Island
off the coast of
Guangdong
in 1552.
With the
Portuguese
establishing an enclave on
Zhongshan Island
's
Macau Peninsula
, Jesuits established a base nearby on
Green Island
(now the
SAR
's "Ilha Verde" neighborhood).
Alessandro Valignano
, the new regional manager ("visitor") of the order, came to Macau in 1578?1579 and established
St. Paul's College
to begin training future missionaries in the
language
and
culture
of the Chinese. He requested assistance from the orders' members in Goa in bringing over suitably talented linguists to staff the college and begin the mission in earnest.
In 1582, Jesuits once again initiated mission work inside China, introducing
Western science
,
mathematics
,
astronomy
, and
cartography
. Missionaries such as
Matteo Ricci
and
Johann Adam Schall von Bell
wrote Chinese catechisms
[18]
and made influential converts like
Xu Guangqi
, establishing Christian settlements throughout the country and becoming close to the imperial court, particularly its
Ministry of Rites
, which oversaw official
astronomy
and
astrology
. "Jesuits were accepted in late Ming court circles as foreign
literati
, regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."
[19]
By 1610, more than two thousand Chinese from all levels of society had converted.
[
citation needed
]
Clark has summarized as follows:
"When all is said and done, one must recognize gladly that the Jesuits made a shining contribution to mission outreach and policy in China. They made no fatal compromises, and where they skirted this in their guarded accommodation to the Chinese reverence for ancestors, their major thrust was both Christian and wise. They succeeded in rendering Christianity at least respectable and even credible to the sophisticated Chinese, no mean accomplishment."
[20]
This influence worked in both directions:
[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.
Ricci and others including
Michele Ruggieri
,
Philippe Couplet
, and
Francois Noel
undertook a century-long effort in translating the
Chinese classics
into
Latin
and spreading knowledge of
Chinese culture
and
history
in Europe, influencing its developing
Enlightenment
.
[22]
[23]
The introduction of the
Franciscans
and other orders of missionaries, however, led to a long-running
controversy over Chinese customs and names for God
. The Jesuits, the secularized
mandarins
, and eventually the
Kangxi Emperor
himself maintained that
Chinese veneration of ancestors
and
Confucius
were respectful and secular rituals compatible with
Christian doctrine
; other orders pointed to the beliefs of the common people of China to show that it was impermissible
idolatry
and that the common Chinese names for God confused the Creator with His creation. Acting on the complaint of the
Bishop of Fujian
,
[24]
[25]
Pope Clement XI
finally ended the dispute with
a decisive ban
in 1704;
[26]
his
legate
Charles-Thomas Maillard De Tournon
issued
summary and automatic
excommunication
of any Christian permitting Confucian rituals as soon as word reached him in 1707.
[27]
By that time, however, Tournon and Bishop Maigrot had displayed such extreme ignorance in questioning before the throne that the
Kangxi Emperor
mandated the expulsion of Christian missionaries unable to abide by the terms of Ricci's
Chinese catechism
.
[28]
[24]
[29]
Tournon's policies, confirmed by Clement's 1715
bull
Ex Illa Die
...
, led to the swift collapse of all of the missions across China,
[28]
with the last Jesuits?
obliged
to maintain allegiance to the papal rulings?finally being expelled after 1721.
[30]
Although Catholic mission work began again following the opening up of the country after the
Treaty of Nanking
in the 1830s, it was not until 1939 that the church revisited its stance on Chinese customs.
Pope Pius XII
's initial move towards greater leniency was subsequently confirmed and expanded by
Vatican II
.
Maya
[
edit
]
There are records of
Franciscan
activity on the
Americas
as early as 1519. Throughout the early 16th century the mission movement spread from the
Caribbean
to
Mexico
,
Central America
, parts of
South America
, and the
Southwest United States
.
The goal of the
Franciscan
missions was to spread the
Christian faith
to the people of the
New World
through "word and example".
Spreading
Christianity
to the newly discovered continent was a top priority, but only one piece of the Spanish colonization system. The influence of the
Franciscans
, considering that
missionaries
are sometimes seen as tools of
imperialism
,
enabled other objectives to be reached, such as the extension of
Spanish language
, culture, and political control to the
New World
. A goal was to change the agricultural or nomadic Indian into a model of the Spanish people and society. Basically, the aim was for
urbanization
. The missions achieved this by “offering gifts and persuasion…and safety from enemies.” This protection also offered security for the Spanish military operation, since there would be theoretically less warring if the natives were pacified. Thus the missionaries assisted with another aim of the colonizers.
California
[
edit
]
Between 1769 and 1823,
Spanish
members of the
Franciscan
Order established and operated 21 missions in
California
to convert the
Native Americans
. This was the first major effort by
Europeans
to colonize the
Pacific Coast
region and gave Spain a valuable toehold on this frontier. The settlers introduced European
livestock
,
fruits
,
vegetables
, and
industry
but Spanish occupation also brought negative consequences to the native populations. Today the missions are among the state's oldest structures and most-visited historic monuments; many of them also remain in operation as Catholic churches.
New Mexico
[
edit
]
The missions in
New Mexico
were established by Franciscan friars to convert the local
Pueblo
,
Navajo
, and
Apaches
. The first permanent settlement was Mission San Gabriel in 1598 near what is now known as the
San Juan Pueblo
.
Contemporary missions
[
edit
]
Catholic missionary work has undergone profound change since the
Second Vatican Council
.
[36]
It has prioritized
social justice
issues and striven to avoid the dangers of cultural imperialism or economic exploitation that had often accompanied religious conversion. Christian missionaries recognize that working for justice is a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel
[37]
and usually observe the principles of
inculturation
in their missionary work. Before Vatican II "
baptism of desire
" and salvation outside the Catholic Church were allowed very little scope.
[38]
With the Council's emphasis on individual conscience,
[39]
baptism is seen not only as the ordinary means of salvation but as a vocation call for Christians to spread the
good news
of God's love to all peoples by their practice of true charity, that is universal and inclusive of all God's children.
[40]
The Church on mission through its various religious and lay associations is today much more involved in an
option for the poor
and integral human development than in proselytizing. In 2016
Pope Francis
formed a
Department for Promoting Integral Human Development
in the Roman Curia to oversee numerous Catholic outreach programs fostered directly by the
Vatican
. Not that such missions are new;
Caritas Internationalis
is a confederation of
Catholic
relief
,
development
, and social service organisations that date back since just after
Pope Leo XIII
's social encyclical
Rerum novarum
in 1893. And today Jesuit missions, as in Africa and India, are more involved in educating and further assisting the
poorest rural populations
, such as the
Dalits
and
Adivasi
in India, than in direct conversion efforts. This is true also in China where proselytizing was forbidden but many Christians assisted with language studies.
[41]
The present practice in Asia and Africa is detailed in the articles on hundreds of educational institutions and development centres that the Jesuits administer. Much the same can be said of other Catholic lay and religious groups and their contemporary missions.
Alumni
[
edit
]
| This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding to it
.
(
May 2011
)
|
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Odoric of Pordenone (Nendeln, Liechtenstein, 1967), Henry Yule, trans. Cathy and the Way Thither vol.
II, p. 142.
- ^
See full text pp. 13?20 (Latin) and pp .20?26 (English) in
European Treaties Bearing on the History of the United States and Its Dependencies to 1648
, Washington, D.C.,
Frances Gardiner Davenport
,
Carnegie Institution of Washington
, 1917-37 -
Google Books
. Reprint edition, 4 vols., (October 2004),Lawbook Exchange,
ISBN
1-58477-422-3
- ^
Daus, Ronald (1983).
Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus
(in German). Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag. p. 33.
ISBN
3-87294-202-6
.
- ^
a
b
"Factfile: Roman Catholics around the world"
.
BBC news
.
- ^
Megan Galbraith
Catholic Church of India Responds with Leadership
Archived
2008-03-03 at the
Wayback Machine
Field note on Glocal Health Council website.
- ^
"Vasco da Gama collection"
. University of Michigan. Archived from
the original
on 2007-10-16.
- ^
Crowley, Roger (2015).
Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire
. London: Faber & Faber.
- ^
de Mendonca 2002
, p.
67
- ^
de Mendonca 2002
, p.
397
- ^
a
b
Daus, Ronald (1983).
Die Erfindung des Kolonialismus
(in German). Wuppertal/Germany: Peter Hammer Verlag. pp. 61?66.
ISBN
3-87294-202-6
.
- ^
Axelrod, Paul; Fuerch, Michelle A. (May 1996). "Flight of the Deities: Hindu Resistance in Portuguese Goa".
Modern Asian Studies
.
30
(2): 387?421.
doi
:
10.1017/S0026749X00016516
.
JSTOR
313013
.
- ^
a
b
"Synod of Diamper"
. Synod of Diamper Church.
- ^
Ruiz-de-Medina, Father Juan G., Documentos de Japon, Rome 1990, 1995)
- ^
Ruiz-de-Medina, Father Juan G., Cultural Interactions in the Orient 30 years before Matteo Ricci. Catholic Uni. of Portugal, 1993.
- ^
Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909 on St. Francis Xavier
- ^
Saint Francis Xavier on Catholic Forum
Archived
2010-11-20 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
Ricci, Matteo
(1603),
《天主實義》 [
Ti?nzh? Shiyi, The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven
]
.
(in Chinese)
- ^
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1996).
The Cambridge Illustrated History of China
. Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. p. 212.
ISBN
0-521-43519-6
.
- ^
Dunne, George H.
Generation of Giants
. pp. 86?88.
- ^
Parker, John (1978).
Windows into China: the Jesuits and their books, 1580-1730
. Boston: Trustees of the Public Library of the City of Boston. p. 25.
ISBN
0-89073-050-4
.
- ^
Hobson, John M. (2013).
The Eastern origins of Western civilisation
(10th printed ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 194?195.
ISBN
978-0-521-54724-6
.
- ^
a
b
Von Collani, Claudia (2009), "Biography of Charles Maigrot MEP",
Stochastikon Encyclopedia
, Wurzburg: Stochastikon, archived from
the original
on 2020-02-07
, retrieved
2018-01-02
.
- ^
Li??ak, Vladimir (2015),
"Francois Noel and His Latin Translations of Confucian Classical Books Published in Prague in 1711"
,
Anthropologia Integra
, vol. 6, pp. 45?8
.
- ^
Rule, Paul (2003),
"Francois Noel, SJ, and the Chinese Rites Controversy"
,
The History of the Relations between the Low Countries and China in the Qing Era
,
Leuven Chinese Studies
, Vol. XIV, Leuven: Leuven University Press, pp.
152
,
ISBN
9789058673152
.
- ^
Ott, Michael (1913), "
Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon
",
Catholic Encyclopedia
, vol.
Vol. XV
, New York: Encyclopedia Press
.
- ^
a
b
Charbonnier, Jean-Pierre (2007),
Couve de Murville, Maurice Noel Leon
(ed.),
Christians in China: AD 600 to 2000
, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, pp. 256?62,
ISBN
9780898709162
.
- ^
Seah, Audrey (2017), "The 1670 Chinese Missal: A Struggle for Indigenization amidst the Chinese Rites Controversy",
China's Christianity: From Missionary to Indigenous Church
, Studies in Christian Mission, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, p. 115,
ISBN
9789004345607
.
- ^
Mungello, David E.
, ed. (1994),
The Chinese Rites Controversy: Its History and Meaning
,
Monumenta Serica
Monograph Series, vol. 33,
Nettetal
: Steyler Verlag,
ISBN
978-3-8050-0348-3
.
- ^
Dignitatis Humanae,
7 December 1965
- ^
Justice in the World,
(1971). World Synod of Catholic Bishops, #6.
- ^
Dulles, SJ, Avery (12 February 2008).
"Who Can Be Saved?"
. Retrieved
21 April
2017
.
- ^
Acts 10:34f; 1Tim 2:4;
Lumen Gentium
, 1:16;
Catechism of the Catholic Church
, 1260.
- ^
Rom 2:2?16; Mt 25:31ff
- ^
"AITECE- Teaching in China | Columban Fathers"
.
columban.org
. Archived from
the original
on 2017-04-22
. Retrieved
2017-04-21
.
Cited sources
[
edit
]
- Clendinnen, Inga
(1982). "Disciplining the Indians: Franciscan Ideology and Missionary Violence in Sixteenth-Century Yucatan".
Past and Present
(94). Boston: Oxford University Press: 27?48.
doi
:
10.1093/past/94.1.27
.
- de Mendonca, Delio (2002).
Conversions and Citizenry: Goa Under Portugal, 1510-1610
. Concept Publishing Company.
ISBN
978-81-7022-960-5
.
- Frykenberg, Robert E. (2008).
Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the Present
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780198263777
.
- Graham, Elizabeth (1998). "Mission Archeology".
Annual Review of Anthropology
.
27
(1). Annual Reviews: 25?62.
doi
:
10.1146/annurev.anthro.27.1.25
.
- Habig, Marion A. (1945). "The Franciscan Provinces of Spanish North America [Concluded]".
The Americas
.
1
(3). Academy of American Franciscan History: 330?44.
doi
:
10.2307/978158
.
JSTOR
978158
.
- Kelsey, Harry (1993).
Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History
. Interdisciplinary Research, Inc., Altadena, California.
ISBN
978-0-9785881-0-6
.
- Lee, Antoinette J. (1990). "Spanish Missions".
APT Bulletin
.
22
(3). Association for Preservation Technology International: 42?54.
doi
:
10.2307/1504327
.
JSTOR
1504327
.
- Udias, Agustin (2003).
Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories
. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
ISBN
9781402011894
.
- Wilmshurst, David (2000).
The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318?1913
. Louvain: Peeters Publishers.
ISBN
9789042908765
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Beebe, Rose Marie, and Robert M. Senkewicz, eds.
Junipero Serra: California, Indians, and the Transformation of a Missionary
(U of Oklahoma Press, 2015), on 18th century Spanish missions in California
- Curtis, Sarah A. "The Double Invisibility of Missionary Sisters."
Journal of Women's History
28.4 (2016): 134?143, deals with French missionaries.
- De Landa, Diego
(1974).
Relacion de las cosas de Yucatan
. Alfred M. Tozzer (trans.). Boston: Periodicals Service Company.
ISBN
0-527-01245-9
.
- Forrestal, Alison, and Sean Alexander Smith, eds.
The Frontiers of Mission: Perspectives on Early Modern Missionary Catholicism
(Brill, 2016).
- McClain, Lisa. "On a Mission: Priests, Jesuits," Jesuitresses," and Catholic Missionary Efforts in Tudor-Stuart England."
Catholic Historical Review
101.3 (2015): 437-462.
- Nolan, Francis.
The White Fathers in Colonial Africa (1919?1939)
(Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 2012). Pp. 472.
ISBN
9966086552
- O’Brien, Anne. "Catholic nuns in transnational mission, 1528?2015."
Journal of Global History
11.3 (2016): 387?408.
- Okachibe Okpanachi, Blaise.
Nigerian-Vatican Diplomatic Relations: Evangelisation and Catholic Missionary Enterprise, 1884?1950
(Frankfurt a. M.: Peter Lang. 2013)
online review
- Sievernich, Michael (2011).
"Catholic Mission"
.
European History Online
. Mainz:
Institute of European History
. Retrieved
2011-07-21
.
- Stock, Eugene; Andrews, Herbert Tom; Grieve, Alexander James (1911).
"Missions"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). p. 587.
- Veale, Ailish. "International and Modern Ideals in Irish Female Medical Missionary Activity, 1937?1962."
Women's History Review
25.4 (2016): 602?618.
- Wall, Barbra Mann.
Into Africa: A Transnational History of Catholic Medical Missions and Social Change
(Rutgers UP, 2015).
- Wiest, Jean-Paul. "Bringing Christ to the nations: shifting models of mission among Jesuits in China." The
Catholic Historical Review
83.4 (1997): 654?681.
online
- Williams, Maria Patricia. "Mobilising Mother Cabrini's educational practice: the transnational context of the London school of the Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 1898?1911."
History of Education
44.5 (2015): 631?650.
- Peter Rohrbacher:
Volkerkunde und Afrikanistik fur den Papst. Missionsexperten und der Vatikan 1922?1939
in: Romische Historische Mitteilungen 54 (2012), 583?610.
Historiography
[
edit
]
- Dries, Angelyn. "" National and Universal": Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Catholic Missions and World Christianity in The Catholic Historical Review."
Catholic Historical Review
101.2 (2015) pp. 242?273.
- Hsia, R. Po-chia. "The Catholic Historical Review: One Hundred Years of Scholarship on Catholic Missions in the Early Modern World."
Catholic Historical Review
101.2 (2015): 223?241.
online
, mentions over 100 articles and books, mostly on North America and Latin America.