Canada has served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every
United Nations
(UN)
peacekeeping
effort from its inception until 1989.
[1]
More than 125,000 Canadians have served in international peacekeeping operations, with approximately 130 Canadians having died during these operations.
[2]
Canada's strong support for
multilateralism
and
internationalism
has been closely related to its peacekeeping efforts.
[3]
[4]
[5]
Canada's role in the development of and participation in
peacekeeping during the 20th century
led to its reputation as a positive
middle power
.
[6]
[7]
Canada's successful role in mediating the 1956
Suez Canal Crisis
gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the common good of all nations.
[8]
[9]
The Canadian public came to identify the nation's peacekeeping role as the country's top contribution in international affairs.
[10]
[11]
[12]
Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping efforts resulting in a military reassessment in the late 1990s.
[13]
By the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts greatly declined, with its military participation reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO).
[14]
This military reallocation resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.
[15]
Foreign relations context
[
edit
]
The notion of peacekeeping is deeply embedded in
Canadian culture
and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from its
closest ally, the United States
.
[17]
[11]
[18]
Canada's foreign policy
of peacekeeping,
peace enforcement
,
peacemaking
, and
peacebuilding
has been intertwined with its tendency to pursue
multilateral
and
international
solutions since the end of
World War II
.
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
Canada's central role in the development of peacekeeping in the mid 1950s gave it credibility and established it as a country fighting for the "common good" of all nations.
[23]
Canada has since been engaged with the
United Nations
,
NATO
and the
European Union
(EU) in promoting its
middle power
status into an active role in world affairs.
[24]
In the early Cold-War years, Canada occasionally served as a mediator in international conflicts.
[25]
The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-twentieth century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts.
[26]
Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations,
[27]
[28]
such as the
Vietnam War
or the
2003 Invasion of Iraq
.
[27]
[28]
Canada has participated in US-led, UN-sanctioned operations such as the
first Gulf War
, in
Afghanistan
and
Libya
.
[27]
[28]
The country also participates with its NATO allies in UN-sanctioned missions, such as the
Kosovo Conflict
and in
Haiti
.
[27]
[28]
History
[
edit
]
Inception of modern peacekeeping
[
edit
]
Lester B. Pearson
, the
Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs
, had become a very prominent figure in the United Nations during its infancy and found himself in a peculiar position in 1956 during the
Suez Crisis
.
[29]
Pearson and Canada found themselves mediating a conflict involving their closest allies when the United States opposed the
British, French, and Israeli
invasion of Egypt.
[30]
During United Nations meetings, Pearson proposed to the
security council
that a
United Nations police force
be established to prevent further
conflict in the region
, allowing the countries involved an opportunity to sort out a resolution.
[31]
Pearson's proposal and offer to dedicate 1,000 Canadian soldiers to that cause was seen as a brilliant political move that prevented another war.
[30]
Pearson would be awarded the
Nobel Peace Prize
in 1957 and be called "the father of modern peacekeeping" for his role during the Suez Crisis.
[32]
[33]
[34]
He would go on to serve as the 14th
Prime Minister of Canada
from 1963 to 1968 overseeing
the creation
of the
distinctly Canadian flag
that is worn by Canadian peacekeepers.
[35]
During the Suez Crisis, Pearson was disturbed when the Egyptian government originally objected to Canadian forces in view of the fact that
Canada's Red Ensign
contained the same symbol (the
Union Flag
) used by the
United Kingdom
, one of the belligerents.
[36]
Peacekeeping efforts
[
edit
]
Canada participated in every UN peacekeeping effort from its inception until 1989.
[1]
Prior to the creation of the formal UN peacekeeping system, Canada had engaged in UN intervention operations, notably the 1948 mission in the second
Kashmir conflict
.
[37]
Since 1953 Canada has been involved in the
first international unified command
(
UNCMAC
) in support of the ongoing
armistice between North and South Korea
,
[38]
and played a central role in the
International Control Commission
(ICC), which tried to
broker peace in Vietnam
beginning in 1954.
[39]
High-profile UN peacekeeping missions involving Canada include those in
Congo
(1961),
Cyprus
(1964),
Lebanon
(1978),
Angola
(1989),
Somalia
(1992),
Rwanda
(1993),
East Timor
(1999),
Haiti
(2004),
Mali
(2013), and observation missions in the
Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights
during the mid-1970s.
[40]
Canada also participated in
multiple missions in the Balkans
with the UN, NATO and the EU in Croatia from 1991-1995; Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992-2010; Kosovo from 1998-1999; and the former Republic of Macedonia in 2001.
[41]
Since 1989, the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police
(RCMP) have been involved in peacekeeping missions related to training law enforcement personnel,
[42]
notably the United Nations
Civilian Police Mission in Haiti
(MIPONUH) from 1997 to 2000
[43]
[44]
and the NATO led missions in
Afghanistan for over a decade
.
[44]
Personnel contributions
[
edit
]
Canada provided the most amount of UN peacekeepers
during the Cold War
with approximately 80,000 personnel – equivalent to 10 percent of total UN forces.
[45]
[46]
In all, more than 125,000 Canadian men and women military personnel, civilians, diplomats – including over 4,000
Canadian police officers
– have served in peacekeeping operations.
[47]
Approximately 130 Canadians have died in service of peacekeeping operations, with 123 of these deaths occurring during UN missions.
[2]
Canada's ongoing participation in
United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
(
Operation Snowgoose
) that began in 1964, has seen over 33,000 Canadians serve with 28 deaths.
[48]
Canada's largest contribution of approximately 40,000 personnel and resulting in 23 deaths, took place from 1992 to 2010 in multiple operations in the
Balkans
during and after the
Yugoslav Wars
.
[49]
The death of nine Canadian Armed Forces personnel when their
Buffalo 461
was
shot down over Syria
on August 9, 1974, remains the largest single death toll in Canadian peacekeeping history.
[50]
[51]
The
United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti
saw the death of two Canadian RCMP peacekeepers as a result of the
2010 earthquake
.
[52]
Canada's "high point" of participation took place in April 1993, when there was 3,336 Canadian UN peacekeepers,
[53]
with a record low number of 34 UN designated Canadian peacekeepers in August 2020.
[53]
In March 2024, there were 59 – including
18 women
Canadians
deployed in UN peacekeeper missions
, resulting in Canada being the 69th-largest, out of 120, personnel contributor.
[54]
Canada's military in the same period had over 3,000 personnel
deployed overseas in multiple non-UN operations
.
[55]
Canada has been criticized domestically and internationally for its non-fulfillment of UN personnel commitments in the 21st Century.
[12]
[56]
[57]
[58]
Peacekeeping assessment
[
edit
]
Assessments of peacekeeping operations deemed they are generally successful, usually resulted in long-term peace.
[59]
The
post?Cold War era
has seen the concept and practice of peacekeeping evolve significantly.
[60]
Traditionally focused on ceasefire monitoring and maintaining stability in conflict zones, peacekeeping missions evolved to have a wider range of activities including protecting civilians, promoting human rights, and supporting political processes in post-conflict societies.
[61]
Critics argue that Canadian personnel may not consistently had the necessary training or resources to successfully navigate complex and volatile environments, leading to mixed results in their peacekeeping and peace enforcement efforts.
[62]
Other criticisms include the perceived lack of clear objectives and mission parameters.
[11]
Canadian troops have been accused of being complicit in human rights abuses,
[63]
notably in 1993 when the
Canadian Armed Forces
were deployed during the
Somali Civil War
to support
UNOSOM I
in a peace enforcement capacity.
[64]
[65]
[66]
[67]
Soldiers from the
Canadian Airborne Regiment
tortured and killed a 16-year-old youth who broke into the encampment.
[68]
[69]
Known as the
Somalia affair
, the incident has been described as "the darkest era in the
history of the Canadian military
" and led to the regiment's disbandment.
[68]
[70]
Canadian troops and the UN system have been accused of failing to adequately protect civilian populations in conflict zones,
[71]
notably in 1994 when Canadian troops were deployed to the
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
. The mission was criticized for the perceived failure to prevent or intervene in the
genocide that occurred
, despite Canadian General
Romeo Dallaire
warning top UN officials of an impending humanitarian crisis.
[72]
[73]
On 11 January 1994, General Dallaire, commander of
UNAMIR
, sent his "now infamous genocide fax" to
UN headquarters
, stating [the informant] has been ordered to register all
Tutsi
in
Kigali
to prepare "for their extermination".
[72]
Military reallocation in the 21st century
[
edit
]
A period of reassessment took place in late 1990s within the Canadian military and the United Nations after the Somalia and Rwanda missions.
[74]
This led to the UN Security Council reducing the number of new operations,
[75]
and thus a significant decline in Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts.
[2]
Canada began redeploying its military efforts to multilateral UN-sanctioned
operations through NATO
, rather than directly to the UN by the turn of the century.
[14]
Despite the military reallocation the Canadian public views its smaller peacekeeping efforts in the 21st century as its "most important contribution to the world".
[12]
The military reallocation in the 21st century resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions, where Canadian troops were tasked with combat and security support roles rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.
[15]
Most notably in
several missions and campaigns
in support of the global
war on terror
.
[76]
[77]
Canada's participation in the Afghanistan war
(2001–2014) saw
165 Canadian deaths
, the largest for any single Canadian military mission since the
Korean War
in the early 1950s.
[78]
[79]
Many within Canadian society expressed opposition to Canada's combative roles in Afghanistan on the grounds that it was inconsistent with Canada's historic role of peacekeeping.
[80]
[81]
The Canadian government rhetoric of peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peacebuilding in support of the Afghanistan war despite Canada's combat roles was a point of contention within Canadian society.
[82]
Alongside many domestic obligations and a few ongoing peacekeeping missions such as the
Multinational Force and Observers
operation in the Sinai Peninsula, the Canadian Armed Forces, police and civilian personnel are currently
deployed in multiple foreign military operations
.
[83]
Notable missions include;
Operation Unifier
in
Ukraine
training military personnel,
Operation Caribbe
in the
Caribbean Sea
related to the elimination of organized crime, Operation Projection in the
Asia-Pacific
,
Euro-Atlantic
and African regions in support of NATO operations related to maritime security and
Operation Impact
as part of the
military intervention against ISIL
.
[83]
Financing
[
edit
]
The unpredictability of peacekeeping operations makes forecasting costs a challenging task for policymakers and budget planners.
[84]
Canada has always fulfilled its financial commitment to the UN by paying its dues "in full, on time and without conditions" unlike other nations.
[12]
[84]
In 2022 Canada was the eighth-largest UN peace operations financial contributor with approximately $198.8 million for ongoing missions worldwide.
[85]
Canada in total allocated $2.49 billion to
multiple UN organizations
including those related to peacekeeping, policing, research, training, climate change and humanitarian efforts such as medicine and food distribution.
[86]
Canada's total military expenditure in the same period was approximately $26.9 billion, or around 1.2 percent of the country's
gross domestic product
(GDP) ? placing it 14th for
military expenditure by country
.
[87]
Recognition
[
edit
]
The
Somalia Medal
, a
campaign medal
created in 1992 to recognize Canadian military personnel who participated in
the international military coalition invasion to stabilize Somalia
, has been awarded to 1,422 individuals.
[89]
In 1992,
Reconciliation: The Peacekeeping Monument
was completed, commemorating Canada's role in international peacekeeping and the soldiers and police officers who have participated and are currently participating, both living and dead.
[90]
The 1995
Canadian one-dollar coin
displays the
Peacekeeping Monument
.
[91]
This commemoration was followed by the 2001
$10 Canadian banknote
named "remembrance and peacekeeping" that depicts a female peacekeeper.
[92]
In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was
awarded to United Nations peacekeepers
, inspiring the creation of the
Canadian Peacekeeping Service Medal
in 1999 that has been awarded to over 75,000 Canadians.
[93]
[94]
Since 2008, after a campaign by the
Canadian Association of Veterans in United Nations Peacekeeping
, August 9 has officially been
National Peacekeepers' Day
in Canada,
[95]
with ceremonies taking place throughout the country at memorials and
Peacekeeper Parks
.
[96]
List of UN missions
[
edit
]
Below is a list of high-profile UN peacekeeping missions undertaken by Canada from 1947 to present, with Canadian operational names listed when assigned.
[97]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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This event began the era of Canadian domination of peacekeeping. Canada ranks first in the amount of peacekeepers provided during the Cold War. During this time, Canada was also the only country to be a part of every UN peacekeeping operation. Canada provided 80,000 peacekeepers (10 percent of the UN total) before UN peacekeepers won the 1988 Nobel Peace Prize. All these accomplishments show that Canada used to be a world leader in peacekeeping.
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Bin, M. (2007).
On Guard for Thee: Canadian Peacekeeping Missions
. BookLand Press.
ISBN
978-0-9783793-2-2
.
- Carroll, M.K. (2010).
Pearson's Peacekeepers: Canada and the United Nations Emergency Force, 1956-67
. University of British Columbia Press.
ISBN
978-0-7748-5886-1
.
- Coombs, Howard G; Deleuze, Magali; Brushett, Kevin; Doucet, Marie-Michele, eds. (2023).
Peacekeeping: Perspectives Old and New
. McGill?Queen's University Press: Centre for International and Defense Policy. Martello Papers series 46.
ISBN
9781553396628
.
- Conrad, John; Lieutenant-Colonel (2011).
Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping
. Dundurn Press Ltd.
ISBN
978-1-4597-0096-3
.
- Dorn, Dr. Walter
(Nov 12, 2023).
"List of publications"
. WalterDorn.Net -
Canadian Forces College
-
Royal Military College of Canada
.
- Granatstein, J. L. (2004),
Canada's army: Waging war and keeping the peace.
, University of Toronto Press,
ISBN
0802086969
- LeBeuf, Marcel-Eugene (2005).
Peacekeeping missions and the police in Canada : an impact study of civilian police officers and police services
(PS64-5/2005E-PDF ed.).
ISBN
0-662-39346-5
.
- McCullough, C. (2016).
Creating Canada's Peacekeeping Past
. Studies in Canadian Military History. University of British Columbia Press.
ISBN
978-0-7748-3251-9
.
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