Overview of architecture in the Philippines
The
architecture of the Philippines
reflects the historical and cultural traditions in the country. Most prominent historic structures in the archipelago are influenced by
Austronesian
and
American
architectures.
During three hundred thirty years of
Spanish colonialization
, the Philippine architecture was dominated by the Spanish influences. The
Augustinian
friars, along with other religious orders, built many grand churches and cathedrals all over the Philippine Islands. During this period the traditional Filipino
Bahay na bato
(Filipino for "house of stone") style for the large houses emerged. These were large houses built of stone and wood combining Filipino, Spanish and Chinese style elements.
After the Philippines was ceded to the
United States
as a consequence of the
Spanish?American War
in 1898, the architecture of the Philippines was dominated by American aesthetics. In this period, the plan for the modern City of Manila was designed, with many
neoclassical architecture
and
art deco
buildings by famous American and Filipino architects. During
World War II
, large portions of Intramuros and Manila were destroyed. Many heritage districts in the provinces were burned down by the Japanese before the end of the war. In the reconstruction period after the
Second World War
, many of the destroyed buildings were rebuilt, however, a majority of heritage structures, especially in the provinces, were lost and never rebuilt. Most of the structures that were lost are considered focal properties of former heritage towns.
In the late 20th century, modern architecture with straight lines and functional aspects was introduced, particularly in the
Brutalist architecture
that characterized government-built structures done in the
Marcos period
. During this period many of the older structures fell into decay due to the imposition of
martial law
. After the return of democracy in 1986, a new age of Philippine architecture came into focus through modernism. Early in the 21st century, a revival of the respect for the traditional Filipino elements in the architecture returned.
There have been proposals to establish a policy where each municipality and city will have an ordinance mandating all constructions and reconstructions within such territory to be inclined with the municipality or city's architecture and landscaping styles to preserve and conserve the country's dying heritage sites, which have been demolished one at a time in a fast pace due to urbanization, culturally-irresponsible development, and lack of towns-cape architectural vision. Such policies are used by countries that have preserved their architectural marvels, and entire cities as a whole, for hundreds of years, such as
Italy
,
France
,
Romania
,
Germany
and
Spain
.
The proposal advocates for the usage and reinterpretations of indigenous, colonial, and modern architectural and landscaping styles that are prevalent or used to be prevalent in a given city or municipality. The proposal aims to foster a renaissance in Philippine landscaping and townscaping, especially in rural areas which can easily be transformed into new architectural heritage towns within a 50-year time frame. Unfortunately, many Philippine-based architecture and engineering experts lack the sense of preserving heritage townscapes, such as the case in
Manila
, where business proposals to construct structures that are not inclined with Manila's architectural styles have been continuously accepted and constructed by such experts, effectively destroying Manila's architectural townscape one building at a time. Only the city of
Vigan
has an ordinance on architectural policy, which led to its declaration as a
UNESCO
World Heritage Site
in 1999 and awarding of various recognition for the conservation and preservation of its unique architectural and landscaping styles.
To help establish a national architectural policy, bills to establish a Department of Culture were filed in the Senate and House of Representatives in 2016.
[1]
[2]
Classical ? Early modern
[
edit
]
Civic works
[
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]
Rice terraces
[
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]
For years the mountainous province of
Ifugao
have been carefully cultivated with terraced fields.
[4]
[5]
[6]
These rice terraces illustrate the ability of human culture to adapt to new social and climate pressures as well as to implement and develop new ideas and technologies. They also epitomize a harmonic, sustainable relationship between humans and their environment. The structures' original builders used stone and mud walls to carefully carve and construct terraces that could hold flooded pond fields for the cultivation of rice. They also established a system to water these plots by harvesting water from mountaintop forests. These engineering feats were done by hand as was the farming itself.
[7]
Maintenance of the
rice terraces
reflects a primarily cooperative approach of the whole community which is based on detailed knowledge of the rich diversity of biological resources existing in the Ifugao agro-ecosystem, a finely tuned annual system respecting lunar cycles, zoning and planning, extensive soil conservation, and mastery of a complex pest control regime based on the processing of a variety of herbs, accompanied by religious rituals and
tribal culture
.
[8]
Although popularly known as and listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage site believed to be older than 2,000 years,
[9]
recent research suggests that the terraces may in fact be approximately 400 years old.
[5]
[6]
[10]
[11]
Palaces
[
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]
Maranao torogan
[
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]
The
torogan
(
lit.
'
resting place
'
or
'
sleeping place
'
) is the traditional
palace
of the
Maranao
royalty in
Lanao
,
Mindanao
.
[12]
A torogan was a symbol of high social status. Such a residence was once a home to a
sultan
or
datu
in the Maranao community. Nowadays, concrete houses are found all over Maranao communities, but there remain torogans a hundred years old. The best-known are in Dayawan and
Marawi
. A torogan is elevated above the ground by columns cut from trees of huge girth. Its walls are covered with plywood sticks and the roof thatched with dried coconut leaves. There is no interior partition, so it appears as a huge hall. Apart from the basic elements of this structure, it is intricately engraved with flowing
okir
geometrical and foliage motifs. A torogan is not complete without the legendary bird
sarimanok
being displayed inside. Furniture is also common among Maranaws.
Villages
[
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]
- The
Kamhatik village
is an excavated remains of a thousand-year-old
barangay
(a term used to connote a polity during the classical era) found in the jungles of
Mount Maclayao
in Sitio Kamhantik within the
Buenavista Protected Landscape
of
Mulanay
,
Quezon
,
Philippines
. It is widely believed that precolonial
Tagalog people
were responsible for the creation of the tombs. It is composed of fifteen limestone coffins that can be dated back from the period of 10th to 14th century based on one of
National Museum
's top archaeologist "a complex archaeological site with both habitation and burial remains from the period of approximately 10th to the 14th century ... the first of its kind in the Philippines having carved limestone tombs."
[13]
- The architecture of the classical period of the Philippines is based on
vernacular architecture
for most of its centuries in some coastal areas at the south, plus the interior of Lanao, after the 13th century.
Fortifications
[
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]
The architecture of the early Filipinos are also reflected in the historical military structures in the country. There was often competition in trade between the
thalassocratic
states in the archipelago. Neighboring kingdoms would often wage wars against one another to gain control of trade and territory.
Fortifications
were then necessary to keep their subjects and interests protected. Due to foreign attacks and colonization, only a few of these fortresses physically remain. However, many cities in the country, such as Manila, were built on the basis of fortifications that predated the colony.
During the colonization of the Philippines, fortifications were also built by the foreign powers to assert political control in the islands. The Spanish, for example, made use of their forts against attacks from Chinese and Moro pirates, as well as the Dutch and the British. These forts were made almost entirely of stone; hence some of them have survived numerous wars and are still standing to this day.
Kuta
[
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]
The surviving attested forms of
fortifications
in the country before colonization were the
kuta
(stronghold) and
moog
(tower). The word
kuta
is cognate with the Malay
kota
which has the modern meaning "city". In addition to its military uses, it also served as a palace for the local lord. These structures were usually made of stone and wood and were surrounded by trench networks.
Kuta
were notably used by Muslims for defense against foreign invaders. It is said that the
Maguindanao Sultanate
, at the height of their power, blanketed the area around Western
Mindanao
with such fortifications to prevent the Spanish from advancing into the region. However, the sultanate was eventually subdued after further Spanish campaigns in the region and majority of the
kuta
were dismantled. During the American occupation, insurgents still built strongholds and the sultans often had these reinforced.
[14]
Many of these forts were destroyed during American attacks, which is why very few have survived to this day.
Notable
kuta
:
Igorot forts
[
edit
]
The
Igorot
built forts made of stone walls that averaged several meters in width and about two to three times the width in height around 2000 BC.
[16]
[
better source needed
]
Idjang
[
edit
]
Fortifications for wartime purposes were also built by the
Ivatan
in the islands of
Batanes
. They built
idjang
which were a type of
citadel
on hills and elevated areas.
[17]
These structures were designed so that the entrance was only accessible by the use of rope ladder which was only lowered for villagers to the disadvantage of the enemies.
Mosques
[
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]
Prior to the usage of the common Islamic mosque architecture, which can also be seen in Arabia and modern architecture, the vernacular mosques of the Philippines used to be the hut-style and the pagoda-style, which were very common until the late 19th century. Most of the mosques in the Philippines today have common Islamic architectures imported from Arabia merged with modern style, though some vernacular pagoda-style mosques can still be seen in Mindanao such as the Masjid Datu Untong Balabaran of Taviran in
Datu Odin Sinsuat, Maguindanao del Norte
. There have been proposals to put the Heritage Mosques of the Philippines into the Philippine tentative list for
UNESCO
World Heritage Site
declaration in the future. The proposals made were to input the historic mosques of the Philippines (mosque in Simunul), to input the vernacular mosques of the Philippines (langga/rangga-style and pagoda-style mosques), or to combine both and input them in the tentative list of
UNESCO
.
[17]
[
circular reference
]
Bahay kubo
[
edit
]
The
bahay kubo
is the term for huts built out of nipa. These types of edifices were characteristic of the way that
indigenous people of the Philippines
built homes prior to the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. They are still in use today, especially in rural areas. Different architectural designs are present among the different
ethnolinguistic groups in the country
, although most homes built along the shorelines conform to being stilt houses, similar to those found in neighboring countries such as
Indonesia
,
Malaysia
, and other countries of
Southeast Asia
.
Developed by the lowland Filipino population from ancestral knowledge originated from the prehispanic
Austronesian architecture
, it integrated with the new Christianized lifestyle of Spanish governance. Houses were built in a more or less similar manner, in the same way that the settlements were built beside rivers and streams. The houses were built near rice fields and
coconut
groves and orchards. The houses sit on posts raised above the ground. The rooms were small, and generally, with a single multipurpose room, having only the cooking space differentiated among the areas in the houses. There is a particular architectural piece called
batalan
that is often situated in the rear part of the house, and is utilized for domestic work like washing, bathing, water storage, etc. The houses were made of raw material like wood and bamboo
.
Tree houses
or houses built on trunk of trees rooted to the grounds were seen as an advantageous position.
The doors of the houses were usually oriented to the direction where the sun rises and never faced towards the west, an architectural tradition which can be explained by the values and belief systems that early inhabitants of the land have.
Later on the invention of various tools allowed for the fabrication of tent-like shelters and tree houses. Early Classical houses were characterized by rectangular structures elevated on stilt foundations and covered by voluminous thatched roofs ornamented with gable-finials and its structure could be lifted as a whole and carried to a new site.
Spanish Era
[
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]
Bahay na bato
[
edit
]
The arrival of the
Spaniards
in 1571 brought in European colonial architecture to the Philippines. Though not specifically suited for the hot tropics, European architecture was transposed via
Acapulco
,
Mexico
into a uniquely
Filipino
style.
In this era, the nipa hut or
bahay kubo
gave way to the
bahay na bato
(stone house) and became the typical house of noble Filipinos. The
bahay na bato
, the colonial Filipino house, followed the nipa hut's arrangements such as open ventilation and elevated apartments. The most obvious difference between the two houses would be the materials that was used to build them.
The
bahay na bato
was constructed out of brick and stone rather than the traditional bamboo, timbre and other wooden materials that elevates the house. It is a mixture of native Filipino, Spanish and Chinese influences. During the 19th century, wealthy Filipinos built some fine houses, usually with solid stone foundations or brick lower walls, and overhanging, wooden upper story with balustrades and
capiz shell
sliding windows, and a tiled roof.
[18]
Excellent preserved examples of these houses of the illustrious Filipinos can be admired in
Vigan
,
Ilocos Sur
.
[19]
Preserved examples of "bahay na bato" are also found in
Taal, Batangas
and
Boac, Marinduque
in southern Luzon,
Iloilo, Iloilo
and
Carcar, Cebu
in the Visayas, and
Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte
.
During
World War II
, many heritage districts and towns outside Metro Manila were heavily destroyed and damaged by American and Japanese bombs. Reports of deliberate burning of colonial structures by Japanese soldiers were also rampant. Most destroyed or damaged heritage structures have never been restored and now lay in ruins or have been replaced with shanty houses or concrete structures with no significant architectural aesthetics. Many scholars have championed for Japan and America's accountability for the destruction of many Filipino architectural landscapes and towns, but to no avail.
Churches
[
edit
]
The order of the Augustinians,
Augustinian Province of the Most Holy Name of Jesus of the Philippines
, built
many churches
all over the Philippines. The
Paoay Church
in
Ilocos Norte
is one of the most prominent types of these churches. This unique specimen of Filipino architecture called Filipino Baroque from the Spanish era has been included in the World Heritage Sites List of the UNESCO. The church was built by the Augustinian friars from 1694 until 1710. It shows the earthquake-proof baroque style architecture. The bell tower served as an observation post in 1896 for the Katipuneros during the Philippine revolution against the Spaniards, and again by the Filipino guerillas during the Japanese occupation in World War II.
[14]
The present structure is the third to stand on the site and has survived seven major earthquakes, and the wars in
Manila
. The church remains under the care of the
Augustinians
who founded it. The church also houses the legacies of the Spanish
conquistadors
,
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
,
Juan de Salcedo
and
Martin de Goiti
who are buried and laid to rest in a tomb, underneath the church. Together with three other ancient churches in the country, it was designated as part of the
World Heritage Site
"
Baroque Churches of the Philippines
" in 1993.
Colonial fortifications
[
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]
Fort Santiago
[
edit
]
Fort Santiago
(
Fuerza de Santiago
) is a defensive fortress established in 1571 by the Spanish
conquistador
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
. It was the
citadel
of
Intramuros
, built on the site of the
palace
and of
Rajah Sulayman
.
[20]
which was destroyed by the Spanish in 1570 while engaging in several battles with the
Tagalog
.
Intramuros
[
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]
Intramuros
was the
walled
city of Manila along the south bank of the
Pasig River
.
[1]
It was established to replace Kota Seludong, the seat of the power of the
Kingdom of Maynila
that was protected by a
rammed earth
fortress equipped with stockades, battlements and cannons.
[2]
The historic city was once home to many colonial churches, schools, convents, government buildings and residences. Many of these products of Spanish architecture were destroyed during
World War II
. Of all the buildings within the 67-acre city, only one, the San Agustin Church, survived the war.
American and Commonwealth period
[
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]
With the arrival of the
Americans
in 1898 came a new breed of architectural structures in the
Philippines
. Foremost of the American contributions to the country was the establishment of civil government. This led to the erection of government buildings from the city all the way to the municipal level. Designed in the most respectable manner, these government houses resembled
Greek
or
Roman architecture
.
[21]
The revival period, popular at the turn of the century, became the foremost architectural parlance of the era as seen in such buildings particularly in
Manila
under the
Philippine Commission
. Education of the masses also became the thrust of the
American occupation
, as such, public education was established, foremost of which is the
University of the Philippines
.
[
citation needed
]
With American rule firmly established in the
Philippines
, the military government at the time invited the well-known architect and
urban planner
Daniel Burnham
together with William Pierce Anderson (a Chicago architect) to develop
Manila
.
[22]
Burnham's arrival led to the formation of the Burnham Plan which identifies the city of Manila as a uniquely
European
city in the tropics and as such opposed to develop its architecture in line with the existing style. The style of architecture, as suggested, varies little from existing architecture at the time as typified by the
Manila Hotel
.
[23]
New structures continued the use of conventional motifs but were made of more durable materials such as concrete. This style of architecture prevailed even after the turn of the century.
The
Luneta Hotel
, located in
Kalaw Avenue
, is one of the remaining structures that survived the liberation of Manila in 1945. The hotel was completed in 1918. According to Dean Joseph Fernandez of the
University of Santo Tomas
, the hotel was designed by the Spanish Architect and Engineer Salvador Farre. The structure is the only remaining example of the French Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized
Beaux-Arts architecture
in the Philippines to date. Other notable American Architects in the Philippines was
William E. Parsons
(a consulting architect trained by
Daniel Burnham
) who is known for the
Manila Hotel
,
The Mansion, Baguio
and
Gabaldon School Buildings
, while applying the use of
hollow blocks
and termite-resistant Philippine
Hardwood
. Eventually succeeded by Architect George Corner Fenhagen up until 1916. Some structures which have been constructed before
World War II
or during the occupation of
Americans in the Philippines
was the
Insular Ice Plant
designed by Architect Edgar K. Bourne who also worked with
Daniel Burnham
.
At the
Far Eastern University
(FEU) in
Quiapo, Manila
, five Art Deco structures on the campus were designed by National Artist
Pablo Antonio
. Three were built before World War II and two, after. Although FEU buildings were totally damaged during the war, the university was restored to its original Art Deco design immediately after. The university was given a
UNESCO
Asia Pacific-Heritage Award for Cultural Heritage in 2005 for the outstanding preservation of its Art Deco structures.
[24]
Art Deco buildings
[
edit
]
During the rise of
cinema in the Philippines
as a form of recreation, several theaters were constructed in the 1930s to 1950s in the
Art Deco
style designed by prominent architects now recognized as National Artists. The
Manila Metropolitan Theater
is an
Art Deco
building designed by the Filipino architect
Juan M. Arellano
, and built in 1935. Another fine example of
Art Deco
is the
Old Jaro Municipal Hall
in Iloilo built in 1934 by Filipino architect
Juan M. Arellano
. It later became the Jaro District Police Station and after the full restoration is now the regional branch office of the
National Museum
. During the liberation of Manila by the combined American and Filipino troops in 1945, the theatre was totally destroyed. After reconstruction by the Americans it gradually fell into disuse in the 1960s. In the following decade it was meticulously restored but again fell into decay. The sculptures upon the facade of the theater are by Italian sculptor Francesco Riccardo Monti, who lived in Manila from 1930 until his death in 1958, and worked closely with
Juan M. Arellano
. Highly stylized relief carving of Philippine plants executed by the artist
Isabelo Tampingco
decorate the lobby walls and interior surfaces of the building. The
Far Eastern University
Manila campus is a living art museum with United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation-Asia Pacific Heritage buildings and auditorium done in the
Art Deco
style.
The following are the Philippine architects who contributed and lead to the design of the classic Philippine theaters:
El Fraile Island
[
edit
]
El Fraile Island
or Fort Drum, also known as "the concrete battleship," is a heavily fortified island situated at the mouth of
Manila Bay
in the
Philippines
, due south of
Corregidor
Island. The
reinforced concrete
fortress
shaped like a
battleship
was built by the
United States
in 1909 as one of the
harbor defenses
at the wider South Channel entrance to the bay during the
American colonial period
. It was captured and occupied by the
Japanese
during
World War II
, and was recaptured by the U.S. after
igniting
petroleum and gasoline in the fort, leaving it permanently out of commission.
Iglesia Ni Cristo (INC) Churches
[
edit
]
During
American colonial rule
over the Philippines, there were a variety of rural
anti-colonial
movements, often with religious undertones,
[25]
and American Protestant missionaries introduced several alternatives to the
Roman Catholic Church
, the
established church
during
Spanish colonial period
.
[26]
Iglesia ni Cristo
church buildings primarily serve as places of worship and are used for other religious functions.
[27]
Anthropologist
Fernando Nakpil-Zialcita
,
[28]
said that
INC
churches can be uniquely identified for "its exuberant use of fanciful forms and ornaments". Churches were started to be built in this style during the late 1940s and early 1950s with the first concrete chapel built in
Sampaloc, Manila
in 1948.
The pioneer concrete structures of the church are mostly influenced by mixing
Neo-Gothic
and
Art Deco
, and some are built in the style of
Art Deco
Alone.
The
INC Central Temple
which opened on July 27, 1984, can accommodate up to 7,000 persons, and cost about US$2 million.
[21]
The
Central Temple
features octagonal spires, "fine
lattice-work
" and ribbed windows. Recent buildings are variations of
Carlos A. Santos-Viola
's designs on the
Central Temple
. These are designed to accommodate 250 to 1,000 persons while larger churches in
Metro Manila
and provincial capitals can accommodate up to 3,000 persons. Prominent architects, such as
Juan Nakpil
and
Carlos Raul Villanueva
, had been involved in designing INC churches while the Engineering and Construction Department of INC oversees the uniformity in
design of INC church buildings
since 1971.
[27]
Contemporary period
[
edit
]
The aftermath of
World War II
brought major destruction especially in the capital city of
Manila
and a time of rebuilding ensued. The modern era dawned on Philippine architecture using the simple straight lines of the International Modern Style as a chief mode of expression.
[
citation needed
]
By the 1970s, a new form of Philippine architecture emerged with the
filipinization
of architecture. The Filipino style found its way in the re-emergence of traditional motifs, the
bahay kubo
and the
bahay na bato
became popular forms to be copied and modernized such as the
Batasang Pambansa
and the
National Theater
. By the 1980s the country's architectural idiom was swept by the tide of Post Modernism, a hearkening back of some sort to classical architecture.
[29]
Today, architecture in the Philippines continue to be vibrant and with the country opening up to the world, more first rate architecture is pouring in.
[29]
Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex
[
edit
]
The
Cultural Center of the Philippines Complex
is home to the National Theater (
Tanghalang Pambansa
). The theater is the centerpiece of the 77 hectare (190 acres) arts and culture complex located along
Roxas Boulevard
in
Manila
. Designed by
Leandro V. Locsin
, the construction of the National Theater began in 1966 and was completed in 1969. The theater is a primary example of the architect's signature style known as the floating volume, a trait can be seen in structures indigenous to the
Philippines
such as the
nipa hut
. It houses three performing arts venues, one theater for film screenings, galleries, a museum and the center's library and archives.
[30]
The facade of the National Theater is an example of
Brutalist architecture
. It is dominated by a two-storey travertine block suspended 12 meters (39 ft) high by deep concave cantilevers on three sides. The building is built on a massive podium, and entry is through a vehicular ramp in front of the raised lobby and a pedestrian side entry on its northwest side. In front of the National Theater and below the ramp, there is an octagonal reflecting pool with fountains and underwater lights. Aside from the National Theater, other structures located inside the
CCP Complex
is the
Tanghalang Nicanor Abelardo
or the Main Theater,
Tanghalang Aurelio Tolentino
or the Little Theater,
Folks Art Theater
and the
Manila Film Center
.
The Parish of the Holy Sacrifice is the landmark
Catholic
chapel in the
University of the Philippines Diliman
. Known for its architectural design, the church is recognized as a National Historical Landmark and a Cultural Treasure by the
National Historical Institute
and the
National Museum
respectively. Five National artists collaborated on the project. The building was designed by the late
National Artist
for Architecture,
Leandro Locsin
.
Alfredo Juinio
served as the structural engineer for the project. Around the chapel are fifteen large murals painted by
Vicente Manansala
depicting the
Stations of the Cross
. The marble altar and the large wooden cross above it were sculpted by
Napoleon Abueva
. The mosaic floor mural called the “River of Life” was designed by
Arturo Luz
.
Antipolo Church
[
edit
]
The image of "Our Lady of Peace and Good Voyage" has been venerated in the church of
Antipolo
for centuries. The old church that housed the virgin was destroyed in February 1945 when the combined American and Filipino forces bombed Antipolo as part of the
liberation campaign of Manila
. In 1954, a new church was built designed by the renowned Filipino architect
Jose de Ocampo
. The
Antipolo Church
is of a
cupolaed
design centered around the image of the Virgin. It functions as the center point of the pilgrimages to
Antipolo
.
Iloilo Convention Center
[
edit
]
The
Iloilo Convention Center
(also known as I-Con) is a state-of-the-art convention center in the
Iloilo Business Park
in Mandurriao, Iloilo City, Philippines. Its construction was completed in September 2015 in time for the
APEC 2015
hosting. It is built on a 1.7-hectare of lot in the district of Mandurriao donated by the
Megaworld Corporation
.
[31]
The
Tourism Infrastructure and Enterprise Zone Authority (TIEZA)
allocated P200 million for the construction of the convention center, while another P250 million was sourced from the Priority Development Assistance Fund of Senator
Franklin Drilon
.
[32]
The state-of-the-art convention center designed by Ilonggo architect, William Coscolluela. The design was inspired by
Iloilo's
Dinagyang
and
Paraw Regatta
festivals. The
paraw
is a native double outrigger sailboat in the Visayas region, used in the annual
Paraw Regatta
Festival sailboat race. Abstract designs of the famous
Dinagyang
Festival are featured on the glass walls of the center.
[33]
It is a two-storey structure with a total floor area of 11,832 square meters. The main hall on the ground floor has a 3,700-seat capacity and 500-seat function rooms on the second floor. A rooftop of 1,500 sqm is available for outdoor functions.
[32]
Cebu?Cordova Link Expressway
[
edit
]
The
Cebu?Cordova Link Expressway
, also known as the Cebu?Cordova Bridge, is a toll bridge expressway in
Metro Cebu
which links
Cebu City
and
Cordova, Cebu
. It opened on April 27, 2022, to the public, becoming the
longest bridge in the Philippines
at 8.9 kilometers, surpassing the
Candaba Viaduct
in Luzon.
[34]
The bridge was first proposed by
Cordova
mayor
Adelino Sitoy
, to connect his municipality and mainland Cebu in
Cebu City
. After numerous studies conducted, the local government units of Cordova and Cebu City entered into a
public-private partnership
with
Metro Pacific Tollways Development Corp.
(MPTDC).
[35]
Vernacular styles by region
[
edit
]
Lowland and coastal regions roughly divide into Christian and Muslim, and highland regions are largely indigenous.
Christian lowland architecture, encompassing a vast majority of the archipelago from northern Luzon to coastal Mindanao, have several ubiquitous characteristics: towns (colonial
pueblos
) follow a grid plan centered around a
public square
(
plaza
) accompanying a city hall (
tribunal
), church (
simbahan
, less common
iglesia
),
convent
, school, and other public facilities alongside concentrated clusters of large houses of the wealthy landowning elite (
bahay na bato
). Spanish colonial policies introduced
private land ownership
(tbe).
Forts
(
fuerza
or
kuta
) were commonly built especially among coastal towns to defend from
seasonal raids
of marauding fleets from Sulu and Maguindanao (generalized as
moros
) prevalent in most of the colonial period, and sometimes combined with the church which served as refuge. Many towns and cities, especially along bodies of water like rivers, lakes, and channels were built on preceding precolonial settlements - Manila and Tondo are famous examples.
Ivatan
[
edit
]
Ivatan
architecture is found in both the northernmost islands of
Batanes
and
Babuyan
, and a subset of its vernacular common house (
sinadumparan
) architecture are unique within the country for its predominantly stone structure - a protective, durable element from the particularly storm and earthquake-wrought landscape of the region.
Nonetheless, many other Ivatan houses and other structures are still built entirely of cogon like in precolonial times.
Mayhurahed
is the general term for such houses, though
Itbayat
particularly has
nirindin
which uses sliding panels. Commonly used as temporary shelters are
chivuvuhung
, or
jinjin
for fishermen - they may become houses depending on availability of plank flooring.
Rahaung
are temporary, well-less shelters that serve either as open-air storage or other activity, while
lagatiti
are simple two-slope roofed
lean-tos
.
Formerly, precolonial Ivatan society was clan-based and was divided by small, tightly knit settlements of cogon houses, and were protected by terraced citadels of stone and earth called
ijang
, typically on hilltops and ridges for defense during clan wars. The Spanish period introduced
stonemasonry
and imported large quantities of
lime
, ushering much of the stone architecture the region is known for today.
Heritage towns and cities (1942?1945)
[
edit
]
The Philippines is home to numerous heritage towns and cities, many of which have been intentionally destroyed by the Japanese through fire tactics in World War II and the Americans through bombings during the same war. After the war, the government of the Empire of Japan withheld from giving funds to the Philippines for the restoration of the heritage towns they destroyed, effectively destroying any chances of restoration, since the prewar Philippines' economy was devastated and had limited monetary supply. On the other hand, the United States gave minimal funding for only two of the hundreds of cities they destroyed, namely, Manila and Baguio. Today, only the centers (poblacion or downtown areas) of Filipino heritage towns and cities remain in most of the expansive heritage cities and towns in the country. Yet, some heritage cities in their former glory prior to the war still exist, such as the
UNESCO
city of
Vigan
which was the only heritage town saved from American bombing and Japanese fire and kamikaze tactics. The country currently lacks a city/town-singular architectural style law. Due to this, unaesthetic cement or shanty structures have taken over heritage buildings annually, destroying many former heritage townscapes. Some heritage buildings have been demolished or sold to corporations, and have been replaced by commercial structures such as shopping centers, condominium units, or newly furnished modern-style buildings, completely destroying the old aesthetics of many former heritage towns and cities. This is one of the reasons why
UNESCO
has repeatedly withheld from inscribing further Filipino heritage towns in the
World Heritage List
since 1999. Only the heritage city of Vigan has a town law that guarantees its singular architecture (the Vigan colonial style) shall always be used in constructions and reconstructions. Silay, Iloilo City, and San Fernando de Pampanga have ordinances giving certain tax exemptions to owners of heritage houses.
[36]
In 2010, the Philippine Cultural Heritage Act passed into law, effectively giving protections to all cultural heritage properties of the Philippines. However, despite its passage, many ancestral home owners continue to approve the demolition of ancestral structures. In certain cases, government entities themselves were the purveyors of such demolitions.
[37]
Other notable heritage towns and cities include the UNESCO cities and towns of
Manila
,
Banaue
,
Mayoyao
,
Hungduan
,
Kiangan
,
Baguio
,
Paoay
,
Santa Maria
, and
Santa Cruz
,
Miagao
,
Puerto Princesa
,
Tugaya
, and
Mati
.
[38]
Filipino National Artists for Architecture
[
edit
]
- Leandro V. Locsin
(1928?1994) was one of the modern architects who shaped the modern Filipino Architecture. During his career, he built five churches, over 30 different buildings, over 70 residences, and major landmarks in the Philippines including the
Cultural Center of the Philippines
.
[39]
- Juan F. Nakpil
(May 26, 1899 ? May 7, 1986) was a Filipino architect, teacher and a community leader. In 1973, he was named one of the National Artists for architecture. He was regarded as the Dean of Filipino Architects.
- Pablo Antonio
(January 25, 1901 ? June 14, 1975) was a Filipino architect. A pioneer of modern Philippine architecture, he was recognized in some quarters as the foremost Filipino modernist architect of his time.
- Jose Maria Zaragoza
(December 6, 1912 ? 1994) was a Filipino architect known for his European style during an era which used American architecture in the Philippines.
- Don Tomas Bautista Mapua
(December 21, 1888 ? December 22, 1965) was a Filipino architect, educator and businessman. He is also the founder and 1st president of the
Mapua Institute of Technology
, currently known as
Mapua University
.
United Architects of the Philippines
[
edit
]
The
United Architects of the Philippines
formed in 1975 (officially known as the Integrated and Accredited Professional Organization of Architects) is the official architectural association of the Philippines. It is the first professional organization to be accredited by the Professional Regulation Commission, and it currently has 38,000 members.
[40]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
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- ^
a
b
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- ^
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.
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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.
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{{
cite news
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link
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- ^
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- ^
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.
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- ^
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.
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. Retrieved
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2018
.
Further reading
[
edit
]
External links
[
edit
]
|
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Government
cultural
agencies
| | |
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Categories
of cultural
properties
| |
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Related
| |
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