For the Arabic script as it is used by all languages, see
Arabic script
.
The
Arabic alphabet
(
Arabic
:
??????????????? ?????????????
,
al-?ab?adiyyah l-?arabiyyah
[æl.?æb.d??æ?d?j.jæ
l.??.r??b?j.jæ]
or
????????? ?????????????
,
al-?ur?f al-?arabiyyah
), or
Arabic abjad
, is the
Arabic script
as specifically codified for writing the
Arabic
language. It is written from right-to-left in a
cursive
style, and includes 28 letters, of which most have contextual letterforms. The Arabic alphabet is considered an
abjad
, with only
consonants
required to be written; due to its optional use of diacritics to notate vowels, it is considered an
impure abjad
.
[2]
Letters
[
edit
]
The basic Arabic alphabet contains 28
letters
. Forms using the Arabic script to write other languages added and removed letters: for example
Persian
,
Ottoman Turkish
,
Kurdish
,
Urdu
,
Sindhi
,
Azerbaijani
,
Malay
,
Acehnese
,
Banjarese
,
Javanese
,
Pashto
,
Punjabi
,
Uyghur
,
Arwi
and
Arabi Malayalam
all have additional letters in their alphabets. Unlike
Greek
-derived alphabets, Arabic has no distinct
upper and lower case
letterforms.
Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots (
?i?j?m
) above or below their central part (
rasm
). These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters
?
b
,
?
t
, and
?
th
have the same basic shape, but with one dot added below, two dots added above, and three dots added above respectively. The letter
?
n
also has the same form in initial and medial forms, with one dot added above, though it is somewhat different in its isolated and final forms.
Both printed and written Arabic are
cursive
, with most letters within a word directly joined to adjacent letters.
Alphabetical order
[
edit
]
There are two main
collating sequences
('alphabetical orderings') for the Arabic alphabet:
?abjad?y
, and
hij?’?
.
The original
?abjad?
order derives from that used by the
Phoenician alphabet
, and is therefore reminiscent of the orderings of other alphabets, such as those in
Hebrew
and
Greek
. With this ordering, letters are also used as numbers known as
abjad numerals
, possessing the same numerological codes as in Hebrew
gematria
and Greek
isopsephy
.
The
hij?’?
or
alifb???
order is used when sorting lists of words and names, such as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries. The ordering groups letters by the graphical similarity of the glyphs' shapes.
Abjadi
[
edit
]
The
?abjad?
order is not a simple correspondence with the earlier north Semitic alphabetic order, as it has a position corresponding to the Aramaic letter
samek
?
, which has no cognate letter in the Arabic alphabet historically.
The loss of
same?
was compensated for by:
- In the
Mashriqi
abjad sequence, the letter
shin
?
was split into two Arabic letters,
?
sh?n
and
?
s?n
, the latter of which took the place of
same?
.
- In the
Maghrebi
abjad sequence, the letter
tsade
?
was split into two independent Arabic letters,
?
?ad
and
?
?ad
, with the latter taking the place of
same?
.
The six other letters that do not correspond to any north Semitic letter are placed at the end.
Common
abjad?
sequence
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
b
|
j
|
d
|
h
|
w
|
z
|
?
|
?
|
y
|
k
|
l
|
m
|
n
|
s
|
?
|
f
|
?
|
q
|
r
|
sh
|
t
|
th
|
kh
|
dh
|
?
|
?
|
gh
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
14
|
15
|
16
|
17
|
18
|
19
|
20
|
21
|
22
|
23
|
24
|
25
|
26
|
27
|
28
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
20
|
30
|
40
|
50
|
60
|
70
|
80
|
90
|
100
|
200
|
300
|
400
|
500
|
600
|
700
|
800
|
900
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
This is commonly vocalized as follows:
- ?abjad hawwaz ?u??? kalaman sa?fa? qarashat thakhadh ?a?agh
.
Another vocalization is:
- ?abujadin hawazin ?u?iya kalman sa?fa? qurishat thakhudh ?a?ugh
[
citation needed
]
Maghrebian
abjad?
sequence (quoted in apparently earliest authorities & considered older)
[4]
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
b
|
j
|
d
|
h
|
w
|
z
|
?
|
?
|
y
|
k
|
l
|
m
|
n
|
?
|
?
|
f
|
?
|
q
|
r
|
s
|
t
|
th
|
kh
|
dh
|
?
|
gh
|
sh
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
11
|
12
|
13
|
14
|
15
|
16
|
17
|
18
|
19
|
20
|
21
|
22
|
23
|
24
|
25
|
26
|
27
|
28
|
1
|
2
|
3
|
4
|
5
|
6
|
7
|
8
|
9
|
10
|
20
|
30
|
40
|
50
|
60
|
70
|
80
|
90
|
100
|
200
|
300
|
400
|
500
|
600
|
700
|
800
|
900
|
1000
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The colors indicate which letters have different positions from the previous table
|
This can be vocalized as:
- ?abujadin hawazin ?u?iya kalman ?a?fa? qurisat thakhudh ?aghush
Hij???
[
edit
]
Modern dictionaries and other reference books do not use the
abjad?
order to sort alphabetically; instead, the newer
hij???
order is used wherein letters are partially grouped together by similarity of shape. The
hij???
order is never used as numerals.
Common
hij???
order
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
b
|
t
|
th
|
j
|
?
|
kh
|
d
|
dh
|
r
|
z
|
s
|
sh
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
gh
|
f
|
q
|
k
|
l
|
m
|
n
|
h
|
w
|
y
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
In the
hij???
order replaced recently
[
when?
]
by the Mashriqi order,
[4]
[
unreliable source?
]
though still used in many Quranic schools in Algeria,
[
citation needed
]
the sequence is:
Maghrebian
hij???
order
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
b
|
t
|
th
|
j
|
?
|
kh
|
d
|
dh
|
r
|
z
|
?
|
?
|
k
|
l
|
m
|
n
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
gh
|
f
|
q
|
s
|
sh
|
h
|
w
|
y
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The colors indicate which letters have different positions from the previous table
|
In
Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani
's encyclopedia
??????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????
Kit?b al-Ikl?l min akhb?r al-Yaman wa-ans?b ?imyar
, the letter sequence is:
Al-Ikl?l's order
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
??
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
b
|
t
|
th
|
j
|
?
|
kh
|
d
|
dh
|
k
|
l
|
m
|
w
|
n
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
gh
|
?
|
?
|
f
|
q
|
r
|
z
|
h
|
s
|
sh
|
y
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Letter forms
[
edit
]
The Arabic alphabet is always cursive and letters vary in shape depending on their position within a word. Letters can exhibit up to four distinct forms corresponding to an initial, medial (middle), final, or isolated position (
IMFI
). While some letters show considerable variations, others remain almost identical across all four positions. Generally, letters in the same word are linked together on both sides by short horizontal lines, but six letters (
? ,? ,? ,? ,? ,?
) can only be linked to their preceding letter. For example,
??????
(
Ararat
) has only isolated forms because each letter cannot be connected to its following one. In addition, some letter combinations are written as
ligatures
(special shapes), notably
l?m-alif
??
,
[6]
which is the only mandatory ligature (the unligated combination
???
is considered difficult to read).
Table of basic letters
[
edit
]
Arabic letters usage in Literary Arabic
Maghrebian
|
Common
|
Closest English
equivalent in pronunciation
|
Letter
name
(Classical pronunciation;
IPA
)
|
Letter
name in Arabic script
[a]
|
Value in Literary Arabic (
IPA
)
|
Contextual forms
|
Isolated
form
|
?Abjad?
|
Hij???
|
?Abjad?
|
Hij???
|
Final
|
Medial
|
Initial
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1.
|
1.
|
1.
|
1.
|
uh
?
oh /
c
a
r
,
c
a
t
[b]
|
?alif
(
[?ælif]
)
|
?????
|
/
aː
/
,
/
?
/
[b]
|
??
|
?
|
2.
|
2.
|
2.
|
2.
|
b
arn
|
b??
(
[baː?]
)
|
????
|
/
b
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
22.
|
3.
|
22.
|
3.
|
t
ick
|
t??
(
[taː?]
)
|
????
|
/
t
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
23.
|
4.
|
23.
|
4.
|
th
ink
|
th??
(
[θaː?]
) /
???
|
????
|
/
θ
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
3.
|
5.
|
3.
|
5.
|
g
em
|
j?m
(
[d??iːm]
)
|
????
|
/
d??
/
[c]
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
8.
|
6.
|
8.
|
6.
|
no equivalent
(pharyngeal
h
)
|
???
(
[ħæː?]
)
|
????
|
/
ħ
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
24.
|
7.
|
24.
|
7.
|
Scottish
lo
ch
|
kh??
(
[xaː?]
) /
???
|
????
|
/
x
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
4.
|
8.
|
4.
|
8.
|
d
ear
|
d?l
(
[daːl]
)
|
????
|
/
d
/
|
??
|
?
|
25.
|
9.
|
25.
|
9.
|
th
at
|
dh?l
(
[ðaːl]
) /
??l
|
????
|
/
ð
/
|
??
|
?
|
20.
|
10.
|
20.
|
10.
|
Scottish
r
ight
|
r??
(
[raː?]
)
|
????
|
/
r
/
|
??
|
?
|
7.
|
11.
|
7.
|
11.
|
z
ebra
|
z?y
(
[zaːj]
)
|
????
[d]
|
/
z
/
|
??
|
?
|
21.
|
24.
|
15.
|
12.
|
s
in
|
s?n
(
[siːn]
)
|
????
|
/
s
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
28.
|
25.
|
21.
|
13.
|
sh
in
|
sh?n
(
[?iːn]
) /
??n
|
????
|
/
?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
15.
|
18.
|
18.
|
14.
|
no equivalent
(
emphatic
s
)
|
??d
(
[s?aːd]
)
|
????
|
/
s?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
18.
|
19.
|
26.
|
15.
|
no equivalent
(emphatic
d
)
|
??d
(
[d?aːd]
)
|
????
|
/
d?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
9.
|
12.
|
9.
|
16.
|
no equivalent
(emphatic
t
)
|
???
(
[t?aː?]
)
|
????
|
/
t?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
26.
|
13.
|
27.
|
17.
|
no equivalent
(emphatic
th
e
)
|
???
(
[ð?aː?]
)
|
????
|
/
ð?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
16.
|
20.
|
16.
|
18.
|
no equivalent
(similar to
?
???
but voiced)
|
?ayn
(
[?ajn]
)
|
?????
|
/
?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
27.
|
21.
|
28.
|
19.
|
no equivalent
(Spanish
abo
g
ado or French
r
ouge
)
|
ghayn
(
[?ajn]
) /
?ayn
|
?????
|
/
?
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
17.
|
22.
|
17.
|
20.
|
f
ar
|
f??
(
[faː?]
)
|
????
|
/
f
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
[e]
|
19.
|
23.
|
19.
|
21.
|
no equivalent
(
MLE
c
ut)
|
q?f
(
[qaːf]
)
|
????
|
/
q
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
[e]
|
11.
|
14.
|
11.
|
22.
|
c
ap
|
k?f
(
[kaːf]
)
|
????
|
/
k
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
[e]
|
12.
|
15.
|
12.
|
23.
|
l
amp
|
l?m
(
[laːm]
)
|
????
|
/
l
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
13.
|
16.
|
13.
|
24.
|
m
e
|
m?m
(
[miːm]
)
|
????
|
/
m
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
14.
|
17.
|
14.
|
25.
|
n
un
|
n?n
(
[nuːn]
)
|
????
|
/
n
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
|
5.
|
26.
|
5.
|
26.
|
h
at
|
h??
(
[haː?]
)
|
????
|
/
h
/
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
[f]
|
6.
|
27.
|
6.
|
27.
|
w
ow
,
p
oo
l
|
w?w
(
[waːw]
)
|
????
|
/
w
/
,
/
uː
/
[g]
|
??
|
?
|
10.
|
28.
|
10.
|
28.
|
y
es
,
m
ee
t
|
y??
(
[jaː?]
)
|
????
|
/
j
/
,
/
iː
/
[g]
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
?
[e]
|
|
29.
|
29.
|
29.
|
29.
|
uh
?
oh
|
hamzah
|
??????
|
/
?
/
|
?
[h]
(used in medial and final positions as an unlinked letter)
|
Notes
- ^
The Arabic letter names below are the standard and most universally used names, other names (e.g. letter names in Egypt) might be used instead.
- ^
a
b
Alif
can represent different phonemes; initially: a/i/u /a, i, u/ or sometimes silent in the definite article ?? (a)l-. Medially and finally it represents a long vowel ? /aː/. It also part of the hamzah /?/ forms, check
#Hamzah forms
- ^
The standard pronunciation of
?
/d??/ varies regionally, most prominently [d??] in the Arabian Peninsula, parts of the Levant, Iraq, and northern Algeria, it is also considered as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic when reciting the Quran and in Arabic studies outside the Arab world, [?] in most of Northwest Africa and parts of the Levant (especially urban centers), while [?] is the pronunciation only in lower Egypt, coastal Yemen, and coastal Oman, as well as [?] in Sudan.
- ^
?
can also be called ("z??" /
???
), ("zayy" /
????
) or ("zayn" /
???
), but the standard is z?y.
- ^
a
b
c
d
See the section on
regional variations
in letter form.
- ^
In certain contexts such as serial numbers and license plates the initial form is used to prevent confusion with the western number zero or Eastern Arabic Numeral for 5(?)
- ^
a
b
The letters ?
?
? and ?
?
? are used to transcribe the vowels
/
oː
/
and
/
eː
/
respectively in loanwords and dialects, ?
?
? is also used as a silent letter in some words like ????.
- ^
(counted as a letter in the Arabic and plays an important role in Arabic spelling but not considered as one) denoting most irregular female nouns
[
citation needed
]
- See the article
Romanization of Arabic
for details on various transliteration schemes. Arabic language speakers may usually not follow a standardized scheme when transcribing words or names. Some Arabic letters which do not have an equivalent in English (such as ?) are often spelled as numbers when Romanized. Also names are regularly transcribed as pronounced locally, not as pronounced in
Literary Arabic
(if they were of Arabic origin).
- Regarding pronunciation, the phonemic values given are those of Modern Standard Arabic, which is taught in schools and universities. In practice, pronunciation may vary considerably from region to region. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the articles
Arabic phonology
and
varieties of Arabic
.
- The names of the Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where they were meaningful words in the
Proto-Semitic
language. Names of Arabic letters may have quite different names popularly.
- Six letters (
? ? ? ? ? ?
) do not have a distinct medial form and have to be written with their final form without being connected to the next letter. Their initial form matches the isolated form. The following letter is written in its initial form, or isolated form if it is the final letter in the word.
- The letter
alif
originated in the Phoenician alphabet as a consonant-sign indicating a glottal stop. Today it has lost its function as a consonant, and, together with
ya’
and
w?w
, is a
mater lectionis
, a consonant sign standing in for a long vowel (see below), or as support for certain diacritics (
maddah
and
hamzah
).
- Arabic currently uses a
punctuation mark
called the
hamzah
(
?
) to denote the
glottal stop
[?]
, written alone or with a carrier:
- alone:
?
- with a carrier:
? ?
(above or under an
alif
),
?
(above a
w?w
),
?
(above a dotless
y?’
or
y?’ hamzah
).
- In academic work, the hamzah is transliterated with the
modifier letter right half ring
(?), while the
modifier letter left half ring
(?) transliterates the letter
‘ayn
(
?
), which represents a different sound, not found in English.
- The hamzah has a single form, since it is never linked to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes combined with a
w?w
,
y?’
, or
alif
, and in that case the carrier behaves like an ordinary
w?w
,
y?’
, or
alif
, check the table below:
Hamzah forms
[
edit
]
For the writing rule of each form, check
Hamza
.
Modified letters
[
edit
]
The following are not individual letters, but rather different contextual variants of some of the Arabic letters.
Name
|
Contextual forms
|
Isolated
|
Translit.
|
Phonemic Value (IPA)
|
Final
|
Medial
|
Initial
|
t?? marb??ah
(
????? ??????????
)
|
??
|
(only final)
|
?
|
h
or
t/?
|
(aka "
correlated t?
'
")
used in final position only and for denoting the feminine
noun/word
or to make the
noun/word
feminine; however, in rare
irregular noun/word
cases, it appears to denote the "masculine";
singular nouns:
/a/
,
plural nouns:
?t
(a preceding letter followed by a
fat?ah alif
+
t??
=
????
)
|
?alif maq??rah
(
?????? ??????????
)
|
??
|
(only final)
|
?
|
?
or
y/?
|
Two uses:
1. The letter called
?????? ??????????
alif maq??rah
or
?????? ????????
alif layyinah
(as opposed to
????? ??????????
alif mamd?da
?
), pronounced
/aː/
in Modern Standard Arabic. It is used only at the end of words in some special cases to denote the neuter/non-feminine aspect of the word (mainly verbs), where
t?’ marb??ah
cannot be used.
[
citation needed
]
2. A way of writing the letter
?
y??
without its dots at the end of words, either traditionally or in contemporary use in Egypt and Sudan.
|
|
?alif al-wa?l
(
?????? ?????????
)
|
(only initial)
|
?
or
?
|
silent
(check
Wasla
)
|
- an
?alif
with a
hamzat wa?l
above it, rarely used in this form and mostly written as an ordinary
?alif
?.
- Initial/ Medial/ Final position: silent
- Marker/connector/conjoiner between two words, either using the
Arabic definite article
al
or with an ?
alif
or
hamzah ?alif
to form a phrase, phrasal noun, or even name: e.g. 'Abd 'Allah
?????? ????
-
"servant of Allah (God)".
|
Gemination
[
edit
]
Gemination
is the doubling of a consonant. Instead of writing the letter twice, Arabic places a
W
-shaped sign called
shaddah
, above it. Note that if a vowel occurs between the two consonants the letter will simply be written twice. The diacritic only appears where the consonant at the end of one syllable is identical to the initial consonant of the following syllable. (The generic term for such diacritical signs is
?arak?t
),
e. g.
,
???
darasa
(with full diacritics:
??????
) is a Form I verb meaning
to study
, whereas
????
darrasa
(with full diacritics:
???????
) is the corresponding Form II verb, with the middle
r
consonant doubled, meaning
to teach
.
General Unicode
|
Name
|
Name in Arabic script
|
Transliteration
|
0651
|
????
|
shaddah
|
??????
|
(consonant doubled/geminated)
|
Nunation
[
edit
]
Nunation (
Arabic
:
?????
tanw?n
) is the addition of a final
-n
to a
noun
or
adjective
. The vowel before it indicates
grammatical case
. In written Arabic nunation is indicated by doubling the vowel diacritic at the end of the word.
Ligatures
[
edit
]
The use of
ligature
in Arabic
is common. There is one compulsory ligature, that for
l?m
? +
alif
?, which exists in two forms. All other ligatures, of which there are many,
[7]
are optional.
Contextual forms
|
Name
|
Trans.
|
Value
|
Final
|
Medial
|
Initial
|
Isolated
|
?
|
?
|
l?m + alif
|
laa
|
/laː/
|
?
|
?
|
?
[8]
|
?
|
y?? + m?m
|
?m
|
/iːm/
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
lam + m?m
|
lm
|
/lm/
|
A more complex ligature that combines as many as seven distinct components is commonly used to represent the word
All?h
.
The only ligature within the primary range of
Arabic script in Unicode
(U+06xx) is
l?m
+
alif
. This is the only one compulsory for fonts and word-processing. Other ranges are for compatibility to older standards and contain other ligatures, which are optional.
Note:
Unicode
also has in its Presentation Form B FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one,
U+FEFB
ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF ISOLATED FORM:
- ?
U+0640
ARABIC TATWEEL +
l?m
+
alif
- ???
Note:
Unicode
also has in its Presentation Form B U+FExx range a code for this ligature. If your browser and font are configured correctly for Arabic, the ligature displayed above should be identical to this one:
U+FEFC
ARABIC LIGATURE LAM WITH ALEF FINAL FORM
- ?
Another ligature in the
Unicode
Presentation Form A range U+FB50 to U+FDxx is the special code for glyph for the ligature
All?h
("God"),
U+FDF2
ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM:
- ?
This is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct
vowel marks
for the word
All?h
in the
Quran
. Because Arabic script is used to write other texts rather than Quran only, rendering
l?m
+
l?m
+
h?’
as the previous ligature is considered faulty.
This simplified style is often preferred for clarity, especially in non-Arabic languages, but may not be considered appropriate in situations where a more elaborate style of calligraphy is preferred. ?
SIL International
[9]
If one of a number of the fonts (Noto Naskh Arabic, mry_KacstQurn, KacstOne, Nadeem, DejaVu Sans, Harmattan, Scheherazade, Lateef, Iranian Sans, Baghdad, DecoType Naskh) is installed on a computer (Iranian Sans is supported by Wikimedia web-fonts), the word will appear without diacritics.
- l?m
+
l?m
+
h?’
= LILL?H (meaning
"to All?h [only to God]")
- ???
or
???
- alif
+
l?m
+
l?m
+
h?’
= ALL?H (the Arabic word for "god")
- ????
or
????
- alif
+
l?m
+
l?m
+
U+0651
ARABIC SHADDA +
U+0670
ARABIC LETTER SUPERSCRIPT ALEF +
h?’
- ??????
(
DejaVu Sans
and
KacstOne
don't show the added superscript Alef)
An attempt to show them on the faulty fonts without automatically adding the gemination mark and the superscript alif, although may not display as desired on all browsers, is by adding the
U+200d
(Zero width joiner) after the first or second
l?m
- (
alif
+)
l?m
+
l?m
+
U+200d
ZERO WIDTH JOINER +
h?’
- ????
???
Vowels
[
edit
]
Users of Arabic usually write
long vowels
but omit short ones, so readers must utilize their knowledge of the language in order to supply the missing vowels. However, in the education system and particularly in classes on Arabic grammar these vowels are used since they are crucial to the grammar. An Arabic sentence can have a completely different meaning by a subtle change of the vowels. This is why in an important text such as the
Qur’?n
the three basic vowel signs are mandated, like the Arabic diacritics and other types of marks, like the
cantillation signs
.
Short vowels
[
edit
]
In the Arabic handwriting of everyday use, in general publications, and on street signs, short vowels are typically not written. On the other hand, copies of the
Qur’?n
cannot be endorsed by the religious institutes that review them unless the diacritics are included. Children's books, elementary school texts, and Arabic-language grammars in general will include diacritics to some degree. These are known as "
vocalized
" texts.
Short vowels may be written with diacritics placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable, called
?arak?t
. All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; in Arabic, words like "Ali" or "alif", for example, start with a consonant:
‘Aliyy
,
alif
.
Short vowels
(fully
vocalized
text)
|
Code
|
Name
|
Name in Arabic script
|
Trans.
|
Phonemic Value
|
Remarks
|
????
|
064E
|
fat·?ah
|
???????
|
a
|
/a/
|
Ranges from
[
æ
]
,
[
a
]
,
[
a
]
,
[
?
]
,
[
?
]
, to
[
e
]
, depending on the native dialect, position, and stress.
|
????
|
064F
|
?ammah
|
??????
|
u
|
/u/
|
Ranges from
[
?
]
,
[
o
]
, to
[
u
]
, depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. Approximated to English "OO" (as "b
oo
t" but shorter)
|
????
|
0650
|
kasrah
|
???????
|
i
|
/i/
|
Ranges from
[
?
]
,
[
e
]
, to
[
i
]
, depending on the native dialect, position, and stress. Approximated to English "I" (as in "p
i
ck")
|
Long vowels
[
edit
]
In the fully vocalized Arabic text found in texts such as the Quran, a long
?
following a consonant other than a
hamzah
is written with a short
a
sign (
fat?ah
) on the consonant plus an
?alif
after it; long
?
is written as a sign for short
i
(
kasrah
) plus a
y??
; and long
?
as a sign for short
u
(
?ammah
) plus a
w?w
. Briefly,
?a
=
?
;
?y
=
?
; and
?w
=
?
. Long
?
following a
hamzah
may be represented by an
?alif maddah
or by a free
hamzah
followed by an
?alif
(two consecutive
?alif
s are never allowed in Arabic).
The table below shows vowels placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonant letter or a
shaddah
sign. For clarity in the table, the primary letters on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Most consonants do connect to the left with
?alif
,
w?w
and
y??
written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the letter
y??
in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. Use the table of primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types.
Long vowels (fully vocalized text)
Unicode
|
Letter with diacritic
|
Name
|
Trans.
|
Variants
|
Value
|
064E 0627
|
????
|
fat?ah ?alif
|
?
|
aa
|
/aː/
|
064E 0649
|
????
|
fat?ah ?alif maq??rah
|
?
|
aa
|
064F 0648
|
????
|
?ammah w?w
|
?
|
uw/ ou
|
/uː/
|
0650 064A
|
????
|
kasrah y??
|
?
|
iy
|
/iː/
|
|
0650 0649
|
????
[a]
|
kasrah y??
|
?
|
iy
|
/iː/
|
In unvocalized text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the vowel in question:
?alif ?aw?lah/maq??rah
,
w?w
, or
y??
. Long vowels written in the middle of a word of unvocalized text are treated like consonants with a
suk?n
(see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity.
Combinations
??
and
??
are always pronounced
w?
and
y??
respectively. The exception is the suffix
????
in verb endings where
?alif
is silent, resulting in
?
or
aw
.
Long vowels
(unvocalized text)
|
Name
|
Trans.
|
Value
|
0627
?
|
(implied
fat?ah
)
?alif
|
?
|
/aː/
|
0649
?
|
(implied
fat?ah
)
?alif maq??rah
|
?
/
y
|
0648
?
|
(implied
?ammah
)
w?w
|
?
|
/uː/
|
064A
?
|
(implied
kasrah
)
y??
|
?
|
/iː/
|
In addition, when transliterating names and loanwords, Arabic language speakers write out most or all the vowels as long (
?
with
?
?alif
,
?
and
?
with
?
ya?
, and
?
and
?
with
?
w?w
), meaning it approaches a true alphabet.
Diphthongs
[
edit
]
The
diphthongs
/aj/
and
/aw/
are represented in vocalized text as follows:
Diphthongs
(fully
vocalized
text)
|
Name
|
Trans.
|
Value
|
064A 064E
????
|
fat?ah y??
|
ay
|
/aj/
|
0648 064E
????
|
fat?ah v?v/ w?w
|
aw
|
/aw/
|
Vowel omission
[
edit
]
An Arabic
syllable
can be open (ending with a vowel) or closed (ending with a consonant):
- open: CV [consonant-vowel] (long or short vowel)
- closed: CVC (short vowel only)
A normal text is composed only of a series of consonants plus vowel-lengthening letters; thus, the word
qalb
, "heart", is written
qlb
, and the word
qalaba
"he turned around", is also written
qlb
.
To write
qalaba
without this ambiguity, we could indicate that the
l
is followed by a short
a
by writing a
fat?ah
above it.
To write
qalb
, we would instead indicate that the
l
is followed by no vowel by marking it with a
diacritic
called
suk?n
(
?
), like this:
????
.
This is one step down from full vocalization, where the vowel after the
q
would also be indicated by a
fat?ah
:
?????
.
The
Qur??n
is traditionally written in full vocalization.
The long
i
sound in some editions of the
Qur’?n
is written with a
kasrah
followed by a diacritic-less
y
, and long
u
by a
?ammah
followed by a bare
w
. In others, these
y
and
w
carry a
suk?n
. Outside of the
Qur’?n
, the latter convention is extremely rare, to the point that
y
with
suk?n
will be unambiguously read as the
diphthong
/aj/
, and
w
with
suk?n
will be read
/aw/
.
For example, the letters
m-y-l
can be read like English
meel
or
mail
, or (theoretically) also like
mayyal
or
mayil
. But if a
suk?n
is added on the
y
then the
m
cannot have a
suk?n
(because two letters in a row cannot be
suk?n
ated), cannot have a
?ammah
(because there is never an
uy
sound in Arabic unless there is another vowel after the
y
), and cannot have a
kasrah
(because
kasrah
before
suk?n
ated
y
is never found outside the
Qur’?n
), so it
must
have a
fat?ah
and the only possible pronunciation is
/majl/
(meaning mile, or even e-mail). By the same token, m-y-t with a
suk?n
over the
y
can be
mayt
but not
mayyit
or
meet
, and m-w-t with a
suk?n
on the
w
can only be
mawt
, not
moot
(
iw
is impossible when the
w
closes the syllable).
Vowel marks are always written as if the
i‘r?b
vowels were in fact pronounced, even when they must be skipped in actual pronunciation. So, when writing the name
A?mad
, it is optional to place a
suk?n
on the
?
, but a
suk?n
is forbidden on the
d
, because it would carry a
?ammah
if any other word followed, as in
A?madu zawj?
"Ahmad is my husband".
Another example: the sentence that in correct literary Arabic must be pronounced
A?madu zawjun shirr?r
"Ahmad is a wicked husband", is usually pronounced (due to influence from vernacular Arabic varieties) as
A?mad zawj shirr?r
. Yet, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if it were not mispronounced and as if yet another word followed it, i.e., if adding any vowel marks, they must be added as if the pronunciation were
A?madu zawjun sharr?run
with a
tanw?n
'un' at the end. So, it is correct to add an
un
tanw?n
sign on the final
r
, but actually pronouncing it would be a hypercorrection. Also, it is never correct to write a
suk?n
on that
r
, even though in actual pronunciation it is (and in correct Arabic MUST be)
suk?n
ed.
Of course, if the correct
i‘r?b
is a
suk?n
, it may be optionally written.
General Unicode
|
Name
|
Name in Arabic script
|
Translit.
|
Phonemic Value (IPA)
|
0652
|
????
|
suk?n
|
??????
|
(no vowel with this consonant letter or
diphthong with this long vowel letter)
|
?
|
0670
|
????
|
alif khanjariyyah [dagger ’alif ? smaller ’alif written above consonant]
|
????? ????????????
|
?
|
/aː/
|
??
The
suk?n
is also used for transliterating words into the Arabic script. The Persian word
????
(
mask
, from the English word "mask"), for example, might be written with a
suk?n
above the
?
to signify that there is no vowel sound between that letter and the
?
.
Additional letters
[
edit
]
Regional variations
[
edit
]
Some letters take a traditionally different form in specific regions:
Letter
|
Explanation
|
Isolated
|
Final
|
Medial
|
Initial
|
?
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
A traditional form to denotate the
s?n
?
letter, used in areas influenced by
Persian script
and former
Ottoman script
, although rarely. Also used in older
Pashto script
.
[10]
|
?
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
A traditional
Maghrebi variant
of
f?’
?
.
|
?/?
|
??/??
|
???/???
|
??/??
|
A traditional
Maghrebi variant
of
q?f
?
. Generally dotless in isolated and final positions and dotted in the initial and medial forms.
|
?
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
An alternative version of
k?f
?
used especially in
Maghrebi
under the influence of the
Ottoman script
or in
Gulf
script under the influence of the
Persian script
.
|
?
|
??
|
???
|
??
|
The traditional style to write or print the letter, and remains so in the
Nile Valley
region (Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan... etc.) and sometimes Maghreb;
y?’
?
is dotless in the isolated and final position. Visually identical to
alif maq??rah
?
; resembling the Perso-Arabic letter
?? ??? ??
?
which was also used in
Ottoman Turkish
.
|
The phoneme
/g/
is considered native in most Arabic dialects, below are the different representations of the phoneme in native and loanwords:
Non-native letters to Standard Arabic
[
edit
]
Some modified letters are used to represent non-native sounds of Modern Standard Arabic. These letters are used in transliterated names, loanwords and dialectal words.
Letter
|
Value
|
Note
|
?
|
/
p
/
|
Sometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of
b?’
?
|
?
|
/
v
/
|
Sometimes used when transliterating foreign names and loanwords instead of
f?’
?
.
[11]
Not to be confused with
?
.
|
?
|
Used in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
|
?
|
/
t??
/
1
|
Used in Gulf and
Iraqi
Arabic dialects. The sequence
??
t??
-
sh?n
is usually preferred in most of the Arab world (e.g.
????
for "
Chad
").
|
/
?
/
2
|
Used in Egypt for
/
?
/
or
/
d??
/
where
?
is pronounced
/
?
/
.
|
/
?
/
3
|
Used in Israel, for example on road signs.
|
?
|
Used in Gulf and Iraqi Arabic dialects
|
?
|
Used in Tunisia and in Algeria for loanwords and for the dialectal pronunciation of
q?f
?
in some words. Not to be confused with
?
.
|
?/?
|
Used in Morocco.
|
- /
t??
/
is considered a native phoneme/allophone in some dialects, e.g. Kuwaiti and Iraqi dialects.
- /
?
/
is considered a native phoneme (instead of
/
d??
/
) in a number of Levantine and North African dialects and as an allophone in others.
- The phoneme
/
?
/
is considered native in most Arabic dialects, but not always part of Modern Standard Arabic. E.g. in Egypt,
?
spells
/g/
in all cases,
[12]
the same applies to Oman, and coastal Yemen. Regionally, in MSA or dialects,
/
?
/
is differently spelled in loanwords; most commonly
?
,
?
,
?
, and
?
. For example, "golf" can be written
????
,
????
,
????
, or
????
/?olf/
.
Used in languages other than Arabic
[
edit
]
Numerals
[
edit
]
Western
(Maghreb, Europe)
|
Central
(Mideast)
|
Eastern
|
Persian
|
Urdu
|
0
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
1
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
2
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
3
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
4
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
5
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
6
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
7
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
8
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
9
|
?
|
?
|
?
|
10
|
??
|
??
|
??
|
There are two main kinds of numerals used along with Arabic text;
Western Arabic numerals
and
Eastern Arabic numerals
. In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western Arabic numerals are used. Like Western Arabic numerals, in Eastern Arabic numerals, the units are always right-most, and the highest value left-most. Eastern Arabic numbers are written from left to right.
Letters as numerals
[
edit
]
In addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers (
Abjad numerals
). This usage is based on the
?abjad?
order of the alphabet.
?
?alif
is 1,
?
b??
is 2,
?
j?m
is 3, and so on until
?
y??
= 10,
?
k?f
= 20,
?
l?m
= 30, ...,
?
r??
= 200, ...,
?
ghayn
= 1000. This is sometimes used to produce
chronograms
.
History
[
edit
]
The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the
Nabataean script
used to write
Nabataean Aramaic
. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from
Jabal Ram
50 km east of
‘Aqabah
in
Jordan
, but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at
Zebed
in
Syria
from 512.
[
citation needed
]
However, the
epigraphic
record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly
pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions
surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them. (The Aramaic language had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so that in the early writings 14 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds; cf. the similarly ambiguous
Book Pahlavi
.)
The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic
papyrus
(
PERF 558
), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts were and still are frequently memorized, especially in
Qur?an memorization
.
Later still, vowel marks and the hamzah were introduced, beginning some time in the latter half of the 7th century, preceding the first invention of
Syriac
and
Tiberian vocalizations
. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned in the
Umayyad
era by
Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali
, a dot above =
a
, a dot below =
i
, a dot on the line =
u
, and doubled dots indicated
nunation
. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by
al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi
.
Other tributes and alphabets written in Arabic dialects
[
edit
]
Arabic dialects were written in different alphabets before the spread of the Arabic alphabet currently in use. The most important of these alphabets and inscriptions are the
Safaitic
inscriptions, amounting to 30,000 inscriptions discovered in the
Levant desert
.
[16]
There are about 3,700 inscriptions in
Hismaic
in central Jordan and northwest of the Arabian Peninsula, and Nabataean inscriptions, the most important of which are the Umm al-Jimal I inscription and the
Numara inscription
.
[17]
Arabic printing
[
edit
]
Medieval Arabic blockprinting
flourished from the 10th century until the 14th. It was devoted only to very small texts, usually for use in
amulets
.
In 1514, following
Johannes Gutenberg
's invention of the printing press in 1450, Gregorio de Gregorii, a Venetian, published an entire prayer-book in Arabic script; it was entitled
Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i
and was intended for eastern Christian communities.
[18]
Between 1580 and 1586, type designer
Robert Granjon
designed Arabic typefaces for Cardinal
Ferdinando de' Medici
, and the
Medici Oriental Press
published many Christian prayer and scholarly Arabic texts in the late 16th century.
[19]
Maronite
monks at Maar Quzhay Monastery on
Mount Lebanon
published the first Arabic books to use movable type in the Middle East. The monks transliterated the Arabic language using
Syriac
script.
Although
Napoleon
generally receives credit for introducing the
printing press
to Egypt during his invasion of the country in 1798, and though he did indeed bring printing presses and Arabic presses to print the French occupation's official newspaper
Al-Tanbiyyah
"The Courier", printing in the Arabic language had started several centuries earlier. A goldsmith (like Gutenberg) designed and implemented an Arabic-script movable-type printing-press in the Middle East. The
Lebanese Melkite
monk
Abdallah Zakher
set up an Arabic
printing press
using
movable type
at the monastery of Saint John at the town of
Dhour El Shuwayr
in Mount Lebanon, the first homemade press in Lebanon using Arabic script. He personally cut the type molds and did the founding of the typeface. The first book came off his press in 1734; this press continued in use until 1899.
[20]
Computers
[
edit
]
The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several
character sets
, including
ISO-8859-6
,
Windows-1256
and
Unicode
, latter thanks to the "Arabic segment", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, none of the sets indicates the form that each character should take in context. It is left to the
rendering engine
to select the proper
glyph
to display for each character.
Each letter has a position-independent encoding in Unicode, and the rendering software can infer the correct glyph form (initial, medial, final or isolated) from its joining context. That is the current recommendation. However, for compatibility with previous standards, the initial, medial, final and isolated forms can also be encoded separately.
Unicode
[
edit
]
As of Unicode 15.1, the Arabic script is contained in the following
blocks
:
[21]
- Arabic
(0600?06FF, 256 characters)
- Arabic Supplement
(0750?077F, 48 characters)
- Arabic Extended-A
(08A0?08FF, 96 characters)
- Arabic Extended-B
(0870?089F, 41 characters)
- Arabic Extended-C
(10EC0?10EFF, 3 characters)
- Arabic Presentation Forms-A
(FB50?FDFF, 631 characters)
- Arabic Presentation Forms-B
(FE70?FEFF, 141 characters)
- Rumi Numeral Symbols
(10E60?10E7F, 31 characters)
- Indic Siyaq Numbers
(1EC70?1ECBF, 68 characters)
- Ottoman Siyaq Numbers
(1ED00?1ED4F, 61 characters)
- Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols
(1EE00?1EEFF, 143 characters)
The basic Arabic range encodes the standard letters and diacritics but does not encode contextual forms (U+0621-U+0652 being directly based on
ISO 8859-6
). It also includes the most common diacritics and
Arabic-Indic digits
. U+06D6 to U+06ED encode Qur'anic annotation signs such as "end of
ayah
" ?? and "start of
rub el hizb
" ?. The Arabic supplement range encodes letter variants mostly used for writing African (non-Arabic) languages. The Arabic Extended-A range encodes additional Qur'anic annotations and letter variants used for various non-Arabic languages.
The Arabic Presentation Forms-A range encodes contextual forms and ligatures of letter variants needed for Persian,
Urdu
, Sindhi and Central Asian languages. The Arabic Presentation Forms-B range encodes spacing forms of Arabic diacritics, and more contextual letter forms. The Arabic Mathematical Alphabetical Symbols block encodes characters used in Arabic mathematical expressions.
See also the notes of the section on
modified letters
.
Keyboards
[
edit
]
Keyboards designed for different nations have different layouts, so proficiency in one style of keyboard, such as Iraq's, does not transfer to proficiency in another, such as Saudi Arabia's. Differences can include the location of non-alphabetic characters.
All Arabic keyboards allow typing Roman characters, e.g., for the URL in a
web browser
. Thus, each Arabic keyboard has both Arabic and Roman characters marked on the keys. Usually, the Roman characters of an Arabic keyboard conform to the
QWERTY
layout, but in
North Africa
, where
French
is the most common language typed using the Roman characters, the Arabic keyboards are
AZERTY
.
To encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The range
Arabic presentation forms A
(U+FB50 to U+FDFF) contain ligatures while the range
Arabic presentation forms B
(U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contains the positional variants. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the
zero-width joiner
and
zero-width non-joiner
, as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software; when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings; or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.
Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in
logical order
, that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's
bi-directional text
features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out of date.
[22]
[23]
There are competing online tools, e.g. Yamli editor, which allow entry of Arabic letters without having Arabic support installed on a PC, and without knowledge of the layout of the Arabic keyboard.
[24]
Handwriting recognition
[
edit
]
The first software program of its kind in the world that identifies Arabic handwriting in real time was developed by researchers at
Ben-Gurion University
(BGU).
The prototype enables the user to write Arabic words by hand on an electronic screen, which then analyzes the text and translates it into printed Arabic letters in a thousandth of a second. The error rate is less than three percent, according to Dr. Jihad El-Sana, from BGU's department of computer sciences, who developed the system along with master's degree student Fadi Biadsy.
[25]
Variations
[
edit
]
The modern hij?’? sequence and abjad? sequence (excluding
hamzah
) in 15 fonts:
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
|
hij?’? sequence
|
|
?
|
Noto
Nastaliq
Urdu
|
?
|
Scheherazade New
|
?
|
Lateef
|
?
|
Noto
Naskh
Arabic
|
?
|
Markazi Text
|
?
|
Noto
Sans
Arabic
|
?
|
El Messiri
|
?
|
Lemonada
|
?
|
Changa
|
?
|
Mada
|
?
|
Noto
Kufi
Arabic
|
?
|
Reem Kufi
|
?
|
Lalezar
|
?
|
Jomhuria
|
?
|
Rakkas
|
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
|
abjad? sequence
|
|
?
|
Noto Nastaliq Urdu
|
?
|
Scheherazade New
|
?
|
Lateef
|
?
|
Noto
Naskh
Arabic
|
?
|
Markazi Text
|
?
|
Noto Sans Arabic
|
?
|
El Messiri
|
?
|
Lemonada
|
?
|
Changa
|
?
|
Mada
|
?
|
Noto Kufi Arabic
|
?
|
Reem Kufi
|
?
|
Lalezar
|
?
|
Jomhuria
|
?
|
Rakkas
|
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Daniels, Peter T.
;
Bright, William
, eds. (1996).
The World's Writing Systems
. Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 559.
ISBN
978-0195079937
.
- ^
Zitouni, Imed (2014).
Natural Language Processing of Semitic Languages
. Springer Science & Business. p. 15.
ISBN
978-3642453588
.
- ^
a
b
(in Arabic)
Alyaseer.net
????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????????
Ordering entries and cards in subject indexes
Archived
23 December 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
Discussion thread
(Accessed 2009-October?06)
- ^
Rogers, Henry (2005).
Writing Systems: A Linguistic Approach
. Blackwell Publishing. p. 135.
- ^
"A list of Arabic ligature forms in Unicode"
.
- ^
Depending on fonts used for rendering, the form shown on-screen may or may not be the ligature form.
- ^
"Scheherazade New"
.
SIL International
. Retrieved
4 February
2022
.
- ^
Notice sur les divers genres d'ecriture ancienne et moderne des arabes, des persans et des turcs / par A.-P. Pihan
. 1856.
- ^
"Arabic Dialect Tutorial"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 17 December 2008
. Retrieved
2 December
2008
.
- ^
al Nassir, Abdulmun?im Abdulamir (1985).
Sibawayh the Phonologist
(PDF)
(in Arabic). University of New York. p. 80
. Retrieved
23 April
2024
.
- ^
File:Basmala kufi.svg ? Wikimedia Commons
- ^
File:Kufi.jpg ? Wikimedia Commons
- ^
File:Qur'an folio 11th century kufic.jpg ? Wikimedia Commons
- ^
"??? ????? ??????? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????"
.
web.archive.org
. 15 December 2018
. Retrieved
16 March
2024
.
- ^
"(PDF) Al-Jallad. A Manual of the Historical Grammar of Arabic | Ahmad Al-Jallad - Academia.edu"
.
web.archive.org
. 13 January 2021
. Retrieved
16 March
2024
.
- ^
"294° anniversario della Biblioteca Federiciana: ricerche e curiosita sul Kitab Salat al-Sawai"
. Retrieved
31 January
2017
.
- ^
Naghashian, Naghi (21 January 2013).
Design and Structure of Arabic Script
. epubli.
ISBN
9783844245059
.
- ^
Arabic and the Art of Printing ? A Special Section
Archived
29 December 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
, by Paul Lunde
- ^
"UAX #24: Script data file"
.
Unicode Character Database
. The Unicode Consortium.
- ^
For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at
The Unicode website
- ^
See also
Multilingual Computing with Arabic and Arabic Transliteration: Arabicizing Windows Applications to Read and Write Arabic & Solutions for the Transliteration Quagmire Faced by Arabic-Script Languages
and
A PowerPoint Tutorial (with screen shots and an English voice-over) on how to add Arabic to the Windows Operating System
.
Archived
11 September 2011 at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"Yamli in the News"
.
- ^
"Israel 21c"
. 14 May 2007.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Macdonald, Michael C. A.
(1986). "ABCs and letter order in Ancient North Arabian".
Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies
(16): 101?168.
External links
[
edit
]