Culinary traditions of the Ainu
Ainu cuisine
is the
cuisine
of the ethnic
Ainu
in
Japan
and
Russia
. The cuisine differs markedly from that of the majority
Yamato people
of
Japan
. Raw meat like
sashimi
, for example, is rarely served in Ainu cuisine, which instead uses methods such as
boiling
,
roasting
and
curing
to prepare meat. Also unlike Japanese cuisine, traditional Ainu cuisine did not use
miso
, soy sauce, or sugar, though these seasonings make an appearance in modern Ainu cuisine.
[1]
: 30
The island of
Hokkaid?
in northern Japan is where most Ainu live today; however, they once inhabited most of the
Kuril islands
, the southern half of
Sakhalin island
, and parts of northern
Honsh? Island
.
There are very few Ainu restaurants in the world, though some do exist. Examples of Ainu restaurants include
Haru Koro (Harukor)
in
Shinjuku
,
Tokyo
,
Ashiri Kotan Nakanoshima
in
Sapporo
, and
Poron'no
and
Marukibune
in
Akan, Hokkaid?
.
Overview
[
edit
]
Traditional Ainu cuisine used meats obtained through fishing and hunting such as salmon and deer, wild plants gathered in the mountains such as
Cardiocrinum cordatum
bulbs (
turep
) and
acorns
, as well as various grains and potatoes obtained through farming. Another feature is its liberal use of oils as flavoring.
[2]
: 406?420
[3]
Due to the Ainu's reliance on local game and fauna, not all areas used all the same ingredients, instead utilizing what was most available.
[1]
: 4
In addition to salt, the fats (
sum
) from cod, sardines, herring, shark, seal, whale (
humpesum
),
sika deer
(
yuksum
), and bear (
pasum
) are used to flavor dishes.
[4]
: 98
Miso and soy sauce have also been used in modern times. Soup stocks may be made using kelp (
kombu
), animal bone, and dried fish. Seasoning and spices include
pukusa
(
Allium ochotense
), berries from the Amur corktree (
Phellodendron amurense
), and wavy bittercress (
Cardamine flexuosa
).
[5]
Ingredients
[
edit
]
Game
[
edit
]
The most predominate game animal was the sika deer.
[6]
Deer were hunted using poisoned arrows as well as by herding them off cliffs and gathering them from where they fell.
[2]
: 337
In the past, deer were so common and easily hunted in Hokkaid? that it was said one could “put the pot on the fire, then go hunting”.
[4]
: 89
Fish and sea creatures
[
edit
]
The Ainu fished at sea in
dugout canoes
using harpoons to hunt a variety of large marine animals and used nets and fishing rods to bring in smaller creatures.
[7]
: 136?139
Beached whales were particularly prized, as generally it was impossible to bring a whale in using canoes and harpoons. However, there were some instances of whaling in Funka Bay using harpoons coated with wolfsbane poison, aided by the gentle tides.
[2]
: 356?360
The Ainu also used a number of tools including fishing rods, nets, traps (
uray
), and fishing baskets (
raomap
) to catch freshwater fish.
[7]
: 136?139
Gathered plants
[
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]
While men were responsible for hunting and fishing, women were responsible for gathering edible plants, beginning in early spring. Tools used during gathering trips into the mountains included the
saranip
(a bag woven from the fibers of the
Japanese lime tree
), the
menoko makiri
(a small women's knife),
itani
(a type of digging stick), and the
shitap
(a small pick made from deer horn).
[2]
: 367?374
One of the most important mountain plants gathered in spring was the
Siberian onion
(
pukusa
), which is very similar to
wild leeks
found in Canada and the United States in taste, texture, and appearance. Large quantities of
Cardiocrinum cordatum
bulbs (
turep
) were gathered in summer as they were important as a preserved food.
Crops
[
edit
]
Farming was already taking place in Hokkaid? during the
J?mon period
, prior to the
Satsumon period
in which the Ainu culture first emerged. However, agriculture began to decline in the 12th century up until the Ainu period. This is thought to be caused by the increase in demand for dried fish and furs for trade with Honsh?, leading to increased importance in hunting and fishing, rather than colder weather.
[8]
Cultivated crops changed over the years as new crops were introduced, such as potatoes, kabocha, and beans.
[9]
Primary dishes
[
edit
]
Citatap
[
edit
]
Citatap
translated from Ainu means “that which has been pounded”. As the name suggests,
citatap
is meat or fish that has been pounded in a way similar to the Japanese method
tataki
.
Making
citatap
[7]
: 50?51
- Salmon head,
milt
, and remains from filleting are placed on a cutting board-like round piece of wood sliced from a tree trunk (
itatani
). The meat is chopped and beaten with a sharp heavy object, such as a hatchet.
- The resulting paste is flavored with minced spring onion,
pukusa
, or long-stamen chive.
- Finally, the
citatap
is seasoned with dried kelp and salt.
Other than salmon, a variety of meats and fish are used to add flavor to
citatap
such as Japanese dace,
bathyraja lindbergi
, masu salmon, Japanese fluvial sculpin, deer, bear, tanuki, rabbit, and chipmunk.
Citatap
was well suited to the meat of older animals, as it made the tough meat easier to eat.
[7]
: 108?114
Citatap
was primarily made in the winter, when food spoiled more slowly, and was eaten over a number of days. If the
citatap
was not particularly fresh, it was formed into balls and added to soup.
[7]
: 109
Ohaw
[
edit
]
Ohaw
is soup made from boiling fish or meats with various vegetables. It may have the consistency of soup, or be more like a Japanese
nabemono
(hot pot) that contains a high ratio of ingredients to broth. As a hunter-gatherer society, the Ainu did not have a staple food as such, but
ohaw
was a central dish in their food culture. It is thought to be the roots of Hokkaid? regional dishes such as Ishikari nabe and sanpei soup. There are no specific requirements of ingredients to use for
ohaw
, but was generally made as described below.
[7]
: 35?37
- A stock is created by heating animal bone or small dried fish in water.
- Roughly chopped meat or fish is added to the stock and cooked. Dried meat and fish require longer cooking times. The scum that results from cooking the meats is not removed, as it was thought to have medicinal properties.
[7]
: 94
- Root vegetables or those which required longer cooking times are added, followed by high fiber mountain vegetables, and finally leafy vegetables. The soup is allowed to cook further until all ingredients are soft.
- The soup is flavored with animal or fish fats, a small amount of salt, and topped with ground dried kelp or dried
pukusa
.
Different varieties of
ohaw
are named by their main ingredient such as
cep ohaw
(fish soup),
kamuy ohaw
(bear soup),
kam ohaw
(meat soup), and
kina ohaw
(vegetable soup).
Anemone flaccida
was particularly suited for use in soups and was therefore called
ohaw kina
, which literally translates as “soup grass”.
Rataskep
[
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]
Translated literally,
rataskep
means “mixed food”. Wild vegetables and beans are stewed until soft and the liquid has evaporated, at which point the mixture is mashed and seasoned with bear or fish oils and a small amount of salt.
[7]
: 40?44
Rataskep
was made as an everyday food, as well as for offerings at ceremonies, as it was considered a sacred food. There are unlimited varieties using different ingredients, below are a few examples.
[7]
: 40?44
Sikerpe kina rataskep
- Dried
symplocarpus renifolius
(
sikerpe kina
) is rehydrated in hot water, then boiled over low heat for hours until the water evaporates. It is cut into easy-to-eat pieces and seasoned with animal fat and salt.
Pukusa rataskep
- Beans are boiled until soft, at which point Siberian onion (
pukusa
) stalks are added and cooked further, then seasoned with animal fat and salt.
Cihue rataskep
- Made from angelica (
cihue
) gathered in early summer. Beans are boiled until soft, then angelica is added and further boiled. Finally, it is seasoned with animal and fish fats.
Kabocha rataskep
- Beans are boiled until soft. Dried strips of pumpkin (
kabocha
) are rehydrated in water then boiled along with the beans. Once the pumpkin begins to break apart, the
rataskep
is seasoned with fish fats and salt and topped with berries from the Amur corktree (
sikerpe
).
Cipor rataskep
- Also called
cipor imo
. Potatoes (
imo
) are boiled with skin on. Salmon roe (
cipor
) is placed in a separate pot and cooked over low heat until it starts to break down. The skin is removed from the cooked potatoes and they are sliced thickly before placing into the pot with the salmon roe. Salt is added and everything is mixed well.
Nisew rataskep
- The hull is removed from acorns (
nisew
) which are then boiled and drained multiple times with the seed coat on to remove the bitter taste. They are then placed in water with beans and boiled together. The resulting broth is discarded. The water is replaced and the mixture is boiled further until soft, at which point corn flour is added. It is cooked to the desired consistency. Rice flour is added, the mixture is kneaded, and salt and animal fats are added for seasoning.
Sayo
[
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]
A thin porridge made from boiling Japanese millet or rice. Generally, the grains are boiled alone, but occasionally gathered vegetables are added. Unlike other porridges in agricultural societies,
sayo
is not a staple food. Rather, Ainu would fill up on fatty soups and grilled meats then drink it like tea as a palate cleanser.
[7]
: 37?39
For that reason,
sayo
was made in a small dedicated pot so as to avoid mixing oils in from other dishes. Care was also taken to avoid mixing flavors when serving by using a separate ladle specifically for serving
sayo
(
sayo kasup
), rather than the usual ladle for serving soup (
kasup
).
[2]
: 406?420
As the porridge used very little grains to make, a month's supply for one person was approximately 1.8 liters. 108 liters would provide plenty for a family of five for a year.
[10]
: 158
The following are examples of
sayo
varieties.
[7]
: 37?39
Turep sayo
- Sayo
which contains
on turep
, the fermented remains from the process of making
Cardiocrinum cordatum
(
turep
) starch. The hard dried
on turep
is first ground with mortar and pestle, then rehydrated in water. The sediment is removed from the water then formed into dumplings approximately three centimeters in diameter, and cooked in the
sayo
.
Sayo
which contains the
Cardiocrinum cordatum
bulbs themselves is also called
turep sayo
.
Irup sayo
- The starch from
Cardiocrinum cordatum
bulbs is made into dumplings (
sito
) and placed in the
sayo
.
Ento sayo
- Sayo
which contains
Elsholtzia ciliata
(
ento
), a mountain plant. This type of
sayo
was favored for its particular aroma.
Satsirari sayo
- The
lees
(
satsirari
) left from the fermentation process of making rice wine (
tonoto
) is placed in
sayo
.
Kikinni sayo
- Sayo
which contains bark of the
bird cherry tree
(
kikinni
).
Cipor sayo
- Salmon roe
(
cipor
) is boiled along with the grain porridge. Raw salmon roe was only eaten in the fall as a delicacy. During other seasons, salted and dried roe (
sat cipor
) was used.
Sito
[
edit
]
A type of dumplings. The name
sito
is derived from the Japanese
shitogi
which refers to dumplings or a paste made from grinding raw grains.
[2]
: 406?420
[3]
: 150
Traditionally,
sito
were considered a luxury due to the time and effort necessary to produce the flour by grinding the grains with mortar and pestle. It was therefore not a usual everyday food, but one made as offerings for sacred days such as the Bear Festival (
iomante
) and Ancestors’ Festival (
icarup
).
[7]
: 157?158
Usual ingredients were proso millet (
mankul
), foxtail millet (
munchiro
), and rice (
siamam
), though
sito
made with proso millet were considered the correct form. Over the years, other ingredients were added such as pumpkin (
kabocha
), and potato (
imo
). Similar to the Japanese
kusamochi
, the Ainu also made
sito
which mixed in Japanese mugwort (
noya
). Their flavor was enjoyed as reminiscent of spring.
[2]
: 378
Making
sito
[7]
: 44?45
- Polished grains are left to soak overnight, then drained.
- The grains are placed in a large mortar and multiple people sing while pounding the grain with large pestles (
iutaupopo
).
- The resulting flour is kneaded with hot water and formed into round flat dumplings approximately 7 or 8 centimeters in diameter and 1 centimeter thick.
- The dumplings are boiled in a large pot, taking care not to allow them to burn on the bottom of the pot.
Sito
that were meant to be offerings were placed as is in ceremonial lacquerware boxes (
sintoko
), wooden bowls (
patci
), on small trays (
otcike
), or skewered with
cornus controversa
sticks and presented to the gods.
[7]
When meant to be eaten by people, the
sito
were served with partially crushed salmon roe or a sauce made from mixing oils with dried and crushed kelp.
[7]
: 125?134
Sito
has a long history. Dumplings made from foxtail millet have been found in archeological
Satsumon
remains discovered in
Atsuma
.
[8]
Traditional Ainu cuisine did not use steamed rice to make dumplings, as the Japanese did with
mochi
. The Ainu first came in contact with Japanese style mochi after the
Edo period
when more ethnic Japanese moved to live in the same areas as the Ainu under the land contract system.
[10]
: 171
Preserved foods
[
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]
Dried meat and fish
[
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]
The Ainu word for dried meat is
satkam
while dried fish is called
satcep
,
nikeruy
, or
atat
.
Salmon was fished in quantities greater than what could be eaten immediately, especially in fall, and processed into preserved food so it could last up to six months. The first step in the process was to remove the head and internal organs of the fish, which was then dried on a rack outside before being taken inside and smoked in the hearth. Trout (
icaniw
) and Japanese char (
tuksis
) caught in summer were dried over a fire to prevent flies damaging the fish. These dried fish were eaten as is by pulling off the meat, or by rehydrating in water and eating as ingredients in soup or as a final cooked item itself. Salmon that was dried after the fish had laid eggs lost much of its flavor, so it was often stewed with added fish fats to improve the taste.
[7]
: 79?85
Milt (
up
) and salmon roe (
cipor
) obtained when slicing open the fish were also dried and preserved then later used in
sayo
or to make stock for
ohaw
.
[7]
: 157?158
While it was common to eat everything of a bear raw while it was still fresh, including its meat and its internal organs, the Ainu would also preserve some of the meat for consumption during the off season. Meat from deer (
yuk
) and brown bears (
kimun kamuy
) was cut into narrow strips and simmered in a large pot. Once the juices were removed, the meat was hung over the fire inside to dry and smoke. This
satkam
would be eaten as is, or boiled again to create a soup.
[7]
: 95
Cardiocrinum cordatum
starch
[
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]
The starch obtained from
Cardiocrinum cordatum
bulbs (
turep
) held a more important position in the Ainu diet than grains.
The Ainu word for the fourth month of the lunar calendar is
mo kiwtacup
, which translates to “soon to be time to dig up
turep
month”, while the fifth month is
si kiwtacup
, or “digging up
turep
month”.
[4]
: 129
This was the time when Ainu women would take their sacks (
saranip
) and digging sticks (
itani
) and head into the mountains to gather the bulbs. The gathered bulbs were processed into starch using the following method.
[7]
: 196?201
- Remove leaves and roots from the bulb, peel the scales off one by one, and rinse in water.
- Place the scales in a large bucket. Grind until a sticky paste is formed using the head of a hatchet as a pestle. Pour large quantities of water into the bucket and let sit for about two days.
- Fine fibers and skins will float to the surface of the water forming a scum after a few days have passed and the starch will settle to the bottom. The fibrous scum is removed and set aside for use in on turep. The starch collected on the bottom of the bucket is divided into two types of starch: the semi-liquid secondary starch and the powdered primary starch.
These two types of starch were dried and preserved, but before that, they were also used to make fresh foods. The primary starch was mixed with water and poured into the hollow of plant stems from the Japanese knotweed (
kuttar
) or
Parasenecio hastatus
(
wakkakutu
) and placed into the ashes of a fire to cook into a thin noodle-like shape. The secondary starch was formed into round dumplings, wrapped in the leaves of the Japanese butterbur (
korkoni
) or magnolia (
pusni
), then placed in the ashes of a fire to bake. They were then eaten with salmon roe or animal fats.
The secondary starch was the one which was used on a daily basis once it had been dried for preservation. It was often formed into dumplings and added to
sayo
. The primary starch was rarely eaten, instead being reserved for gifts or used as medicine.
[7]
: 188
It was considered taboo to speak of alcohol or love affairs while working on any part of the starch making process. It was said such discussions would agitate the starch and it would fail to settle properly.
[7]
: 200
On turep
[
edit
]
On turep
translates as “fermented
turep
”. It is a preserved food fermented from the fiber and skin byproduct of the
turep
starch extraction process. It was made using the following method.
[7]
: 201
- A sieve (
icari
) is used to gather the fiber and skins that float in or on the water after the
turep
bulbs have been crushed and soaked in water.
- The water is thoroughly wrung from the fiber, then it is wrapped in leaves from the Japanese butterbur (
korkoni
) or
Parasenecio hastatus
(
wakkakutu
) and left to ferment for three to ten days. This fermenting process is called “
on
”.
- The fermented product is ground thoroughly with a mortar and pestle. Once pounded, it is kneaded, formed into donut-like shapes, and dried.
- A cord is passed through the center and the
on turep
is stored hung from a rack above the hearth.
The
on turep
was eaten by smashing and rehydrating it to form into dumplings and placed in
sayo
.
Pocche-imo
[
edit
]
Pocche-imo
is a preserved potato food also known as
penekoshoi-imo
or
munini-imo
. The process involved uses the extreme cold of Hokkaid? in a fashion similar to the production of
chuno
in South America.
Once potatoes were harvested in the fall, the poorly shaped and small potatoes were left outside. The winter's cold would soon come and freeze the potatoes, which would thaw again in spring. This process of freezing and thawing would break down the structure of the potatoes, turning them soft. Once in that state, the potatoes were soaked in water and thawed completely. The starch that settled to the bottom of the water was collected, formed into spheres, and arranged in a warm place to ferment. This resulted in a fine textured potato flour. The flour was formed into cakes and baked in the ashes of the fire, then bear fat or
cipor
(salmon roe) was added and together placed in
sayo
to eat.
[11]
In modern times with the influence of ethnic Japanese culture, it became more common to flavor
pocche-imo
with artificial flavorings such as
saccharin
then deep fry them. The fried product is then eaten with nori or a mixture of sugar and soy sauce.
[7]
: 128
Commodities
[
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]
Alcohol
[
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]
Words for alcohol in the Ainu language include
sake
,
tonoto
, and
askur
. The word sake is a loanword from Japanese, and
tonoto
is also a word developed under Japanese influence as it originally referred to food or beverages given by an influential Japanese person, who was called a
ton
.
[10]
: 161?167
Ainu alcohol is an undistilled alcohol made from Japanese millet that is similar in appearance and flavor to homebrewed sake.
All alcohol was produced by the women. Virtuous, respected
katkemat
(ladies/wives) from nearby were considered suitable for leading the task. Conversely, young women, particularly those during
menokotasum
(menstruation, literally translated as “women sickness”) were considered impure and did not assist.
[7]
: 163
The ingredients considered best for making alcohol were Japanese millet (
piyapa
) or proso millet (
menkul
). First, the grains were heated in a large pot with water until a porridge formed. Once cool to the touch,
malt
was mixed in. The Ainu either acquired malted grain from trade with the Japanese or they produced their own by boiling Japanese millet, acorns, and
Cardiocrinum cordatum
then sprinkling powdered bark from the
Cercidiphyllum
tree on the finished product. Furthermore, the Ainu word for malt,
kamtaci
, is the same as the old Japanese word for malted rice,
kamutachi
.
[4]
: 99
The alcohol was stored in a lacquered vessel (
sintoko
) and left to set in hot embers as a warding against evil. Using a portion of
Apehuci-kamuy
, the goddess of fire, like this would protect the alcohol from evil spirits, and was a prayer for the success of the alcohol making process.
[7]
: 163
As an additional warding against evil spirits, a hatchet (
tasiro
) or an Ainu blade (
emus
) was placed atop the sintoko as it was left to set for ten days near the
kamuy puyar
, the window furthest inside the cise, which was considered sacred. Once the alcohol had fermented enough, the spent coals were returned to the hearth and the mash was strained through a sieve (
icari
) to remove the lees (
sirari
) and finish the alcohol.
[7]
: 165
It was stirred using a sake ladle (
sake-pisakku
), ladled into a spouted bowl (
etosup
), then poured into bowls (
itanki
).
[7]
: 162?169
When offering alcohol to the spirits, an
ikupasuy
, a ceremonial stick, was dipped into a bowl of sake set on a
takaysara
, a bowl stand. The alcohol on the
ikupasuy
was then spread onto the
inau
. It was believed that by going through the
ikupasuy
, one drop of alcohol in the human world would become an entire barrel of alcohol in the spirit world. The Ainu said that alcohol was something that everyone enjoyed, along with the spirits. Drinking alone was not an option.
[10]
: 161?167
The Ainu of the
Hidaka
region, such as those near
Shizunai
, had a legend that tsunami spirits hated lees, so they spread the lees around their homes to ward off tsunamis.
[5]
: 113?114
Drinks
[
edit
]
The teas drunk by Ainu were not made with the evergreen
Camellia sinensis
, but from the seeds and bark of trees, or medicinal herbs native to the cool climate of Hokkaid?.
[2]
: 406?420
The Ainu would brew various plant materials to make tea such as Japanese bigleaf magnolia (
pusni
) twigs and seeds,
kobushi magnolia
(
omawkusni
) twigs and seeds,
Lindera umbellata
twigs (
sumnuhas
), bird cherry (
kikinni
) bark,
Ledum palustre
leaves (
haspo
),
Vietnamese balm
stems and leaves (
ento
),
Libanotis coreana
roots (
upew
),
Heracleum lanatum
(
pittok
) roots, and
Angelica genuflexa
(
munusi
) roots.
[2]
: 406?420
[4]
: 94
Cinnamomum camphora
(
ciprasu
) which grows along the coast was used in a similar way. In the
Sakhalin
region, drinks were made of boiled
Ledum palustre
(
nuxca
) stems and leaves,
Rose rugosa
(
otaruxni
), and
Rubus matsumuranus
(
kinakaoxni
) stems and leaves.
[12]
Japanese tea imported from Honshu has become widespread in modern times.
Tree sap
[
edit
]
There are some trees native to Hokkaid
?
that contain a sweet sap. The Ainu used the sap of these trees (
niwakka,
literally translated as “tree water”) as a drink and flavoring for foods.
Large amounts of sap run from the trunk of the white birch (
kapattatni
) if it is damaged in the summer. This sap is called
tatni wakka
and was used as water for cooking when there was none available in the area. A drink was also made by adding chopped
Symplocarpus nipponicus
to the sap along with flavoring.
[4]
: 94
The Sakhalin Ainu would make alcohol by placing set white birch sap into blackcurrant juice and leaving it to ferment.
The painted maple (
topeni
, meaning “milk tree”) is related to the
sugar maple
of North America. A sweet sap flows from the trunk if it is damaged. The trunks would be scored during the winter to make “sap icicles” that were eaten like popsicles. The sap was also boiled down to create a sweetener. This was then boiled with beans or water chestnuts to make a high-quality
rataskep
.
[2]
: 416
Sap fell out of use along with the influx of sugar during the
Meiji Period
, but it experienced a temporary resurgence during the shortages of World War II.
Utensils and eating habits
[
edit
]
“Meal” in Ainu is “
ipe
”. Traditionally, two meals were eaten per day, breakfast (
kunneywa ipe
) and dinner (
onuman ipe
), and a third meal, lunch (
tokes ipe
), was added during the
Taisho period
. A night meal (
kunne ipe
) was sometimes eaten during night fishing or other late activities.
[2]
: 416
Food was transferred from the cooking pot using a ladle (
kasup
) into a lacquerware bowl (
itanki
) for eating. These bowls were obtained through trade with the ethnic Japanese and were large enough to hold 400 ml worth of food. Chunks of meat or fish that were too large to fit in the bowl were placed on mats woven from reeds.
[2]
: 406?420
Items such as fish roasted on a spit or
sito
were eaten by hand, but otherwise, most foods were eaten with chopsticks (
pasuy
) or spoons (
parapasuy
).
Parapasuy
translated literally means “wide chopstick”. Both spoons and chopsticks were carved from wood.
[2]
: 406?420
When guests were over for food, the head woman of the house would offer food and say “
ipeyan
” (please eat). The guest would express their gratitude, and, if it were a valuable meal such as bear meat, they would raise the food to their forehead in thanks before beginning. However, the family would not say anything before eating if there were no guests. Once finished, it was customary to say “
hunna
” to express their gratitude for the food.
[2]
: 412
Similar to the ethnic Japanese, it was considered polite to eat all food that was provided. Because of this, it was considered polite to use one's finger to wipe the remaining sauce from inside the bowl and lick it. This custom is the reason for the Ainu name for the pointer finger, “
itanki kem atsukep
”, literally meaning “bowl-licking finger”.
[2]
: 406?420
[8]
References
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]
- ^
a
b
Ipe Taberu
(PDF)
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ASIN
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Sekai no shokubunka 20: Kyokuhoku
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ISBN
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Segawa, Takaroi (2007).
Ainu no rekishi: umi to takara no nomado
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アイヌ民族博物館.
"とる"
. アイヌ民族博物館. Archived from
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林喜, 茂 (1969).
Ainu no noukou
. Keiy?sha.
ASIN
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- ^
Kayano, Shigeru (2000).
Ainu saijiki : Nibutani no kurashi to kokoro
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ISBN
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Chiri, Mashiho.
Bunrui Ainugo Jiten Shokubutsuhen
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ASIN
B000JB3WQ4
.
Bibliography
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]
External links
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