British civil wars, 1639?1653
This article is about the British Isles. For the three kingdoms period in ancient China, see
Three Kingdoms
.
The
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
,
[b]
sometimes known as the
British Civil Wars
,
[c]
[d]
were a series of intertwined conflicts fought between 1639 and 1653 in the kingdoms of
England
,
Scotland
and
Ireland
, then separate entities united in a
personal union
under
Charles I
. They include the 1639 to 1640
Bishops' Wars
, the
First
and
Second English Civil Wars
, the
Irish Confederate Wars
, the
Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
and the
Anglo-Scottish War
of 1650?1652. They resulted in victory for the
Parliamentarian
army, the
execution of Charles I
, the
abolition of monarchy
, and founding of the
Commonwealth of England
, later the
The Protectorate
, a
unitary state
which controlled the
British Isles
until the
Stuart Restoration
in 1660.
Political and religious conflict between Charles I and his opponents dated to the early years of his reign. While the vast majority supported the institution of monarchy, they disagreed on who held ultimate authority.
Royalists
(or 'Cavaliers') generally argued political and religious bodies were subordinate to the king, while most of their
Parliamentarian
(or 'Roundhead') opponents backed a limited form of
constitutional monarchy
and opposed the
Personal Rule
Charles had imposed. This was worsened by differences over religion and
religious freedom
.
Reformed Protestants
such as the English
Puritans
and Scottish
Covenanters
opposed
the changes
Charles tried to impose on the Protestant state churches
of England
and
Scotland
. In Ireland, the only one with a
Catholic
majority, the
Irish Confederates
wanted an end to
anti-Catholic discrimination
, greater self-governance, and a reversal of
land grants to Protestant settlers
.
The conflicts began with the
Bishops' Wars
of 1639?1640, when Scottish Covenanters who opposed Charles' religious reforms gained control of Scotland and briefly occupied northern England. Irish Catholics launched a
rebellion in 1641
, which developed into ethnic conflict with Protestant settlers. The
Irish Catholic Confederation
, formed to control the rebellion, held most of Ireland in the ensuing war against the Royalists, Parliamentarians, and Covenanters. Although all three agreed on the need to quell the rebellion, none trusted the other two with control of an army raised to do so. In August 1642, failure to break the resulting political deadlock sparked the
First English Civil War
, which pitted Royalists against both the Parliamentarians and their Covenanter allies in England and Wales.
The war in England ended when Charles surrendered to the Scots in 1646, but divisions among his opponents and his refusal to make significant political concessions caused a renewed outbreak of fighting in 1648. In the
Second English Civil War
, Parliamentarians again defeated the Royalists and a Covenanter faction called the
Engagers
. The Parliamentarian
New Model Army
then
purged England's parliament
of those who wanted to continue negotiations with the king. The resulting
Rump Parliament
approved his execution in January 1649 and founded the republican
Commonwealth of England
. In the
Treaty of Breda
, the Scots agreed to restore
Charles II
to the English throne, but were defeated in the 1650?1652
Anglo-Scottish war
. Under
Oliver Cromwell
, the Commonwealth
conquered Ireland
and most
Irish Catholic lands were seized
. The British Isles became a
united republic
ruled by Cromwell and dominated by the army. There were sporadic uprisings until the monarchy
was restored
in 1660.
Nomenclature
[
edit
]
The term
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
first appears in
A Brief Chronicle of all the Chief Actions so fatally Falling out in the three Kingdoms
by James Heath, published in 1662,
but historian Ian Gentles argues "there is no stable, agreed title for the events....which have been variously labelled the Great Rebellion, the Puritan Revolution, the English Civil War, the English Revolution and… the Wars of the Three Kingdoms."
It is generally used by modern historians who see the conflicts in each state as driven by overlapping but often distinct issues, rather than as mere background to the
English Civil War
, while others have labelled them the
British Civil Wars
.
Background
[
edit
]
General
[
edit
]
After 1541, monarchs of England styled their Irish territory as a
Kingdom
?replacing the
Lordship of Ireland
?and ruled there with the assistance of a separate
Irish Parliament
. Also, with the
Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542
,
Henry VIII
integrated
Wales
more closely into the
Kingdom of England
. Scotland, the third separate kingdom, was governed by the
House of Stuart
.
By means of the
English Reformation
, King Henry VIII made himself head of the Protestant
Church of England
and outlawed
Catholicism
in
England and Wales
. In the course of the 16th century,
Protestantism
became intimately associated with
national identity
in England; Catholicism had come to be seen as the national enemy, particularly as it was embodied in the rivals
France
and
Spain
. Catholicism, however, remained the religion of most people in Ireland and for many Irish it was a symbol of native resistance to the
Tudor conquest of Ireland
.
In the
Kingdom of Scotland
, the
Protestant Reformation
was a popular movement led by
John Knox
. The Scottish Parliament legislated for a national
Presbyterian
church?namely the
Church of Scotland
or
the Kirk
?and
Mary, Queen of Scots
, a Catholic, was forced to abdicate in favour of her son
James VI of Scotland
. James grew up under a regency disputed between Catholic and Protestant factions; when he took power, he aspired to be a "universal King", favouring the English
Episcopalian
system of bishops appointed by the king. In 1584, he introduced bishops into the Church of Scotland, but met with vigorous opposition, and he had to concede that the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
would continue to run the church.
The personal union of the three kingdoms under one monarch came about when King James VI of Scotland succeeded Elizabeth I to the English throne in 1603, when he also became King James I of England and of Ireland. In 1625,
Charles I
succeeded his father and marked three main concerns regarding England and Wales: how to fund his government, how to reform the church, and how to limit the English Parliament's interference in his rule. At that time, he showed little interest in his other two kingdoms, Scotland and Ireland.
[10]
Scotland
[
edit
]
James VI remained Protestant, taking care to maintain his hopes of succession to the English throne. He duly became
James I of England
in 1603 and moved to London. James concentrated on dealing with the English court and
Parliament
, running Scotland through written instructions to the
Privy Council of Scotland
and controlling the
Parliament of Scotland
through the
Lords of the Articles
. He constrained the authority of the
General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
and stopped it from meeting, then increased the number of bishops in the
Church of Scotland
. In 1618, he held a General Assembly and pushed through
Five Articles
of Episcopalian practices, which were widely boycotted.
After his death in 1625, James was succeeded by his son Charles I, who was crowned in
Holyrood Palace
,
Edinburgh
, in 1633, with full
Anglican
rites. Charles was less skillful and restrained than his father; his attempts to enforce Anglican practices in the Church of Scotland created opposition which reached a flashpoint when he introduced the Anglican
Book of Common Prayer
. His confrontation with the Scots came to a head in 1639, when he tried and failed to coerce Scotland by military means during the
Bishops' Wars
.
England
[
edit
]
Charles shared his father's belief in the
Divine Right of Kings
, and his persistent assertion of this standard seriously disrupted relations between the Crown and the English Parliament. The Church of England remained dominant, but a powerful
Puritan
minority, represented by about one third of Parliament, began to assert themselves; their religious precepts had much in common with the Presbyterian Scots.
The English Parliament and the king had repeated disputes over taxation, military expenditure, and the role of the Parliament in government. While James I had held much the same opinions as his son regarding
Royal Prerogatives
, he usually had enough discretion and charisma to persuade Parliamentarians to accept his thinking. Charles had no such skill and, faced with multiple crises during 1639?1642, he failed to prevent his kingdoms from sliding into civil war. When Charles approached Parliament to pay for a campaign against the Scots, they refused. They then declared themselves to be permanently in session?
the Long Parliament
?and soon presented Charles with a long list of civil and religious grievances requiring his remedy before they would approve any new legislation.
English overseas possessions
[
edit
]
During the English Civil War, the English overseas possessions became highly involved. In the Channel Islands, the island of Jersey and
Castle Cornet
in Guernsey supported the King until a surrender with honour in December 1651.
Although the newer, Puritan settlements in North America, notably
Massachusetts
, were dominated by Parliamentarians, the older colonies to the south sided with the Crown. Friction between Royalists, most of whom were Anglican, and Puritans in Maryland came to a head in the
Battle of the Severn
. The
Virginia Company's
settlements,
Bermuda
and
Virginia
, as well as
Antigua
and
Barbados
, were conspicuous in their loyalty to the Crown. Bermuda's Independent Puritans were expelled,
[11]
[12]
settling the
Bahamas
under
William Sayle
as the
Eleutheran Adventurers
. Parliament passed
An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego
in October, 1650, which stated that
due punishment [be] inflicted upon the said Delinquents, do Declare all and every the said persons in Barbada's, Antego, Bermuda's and Virginia, that have contrived, abetted, aided or assisted those horrid Rebellions, or have since willingly joyned with them, to be notorious Robbers and Traitors, and such as by the Law of Nations are not to be permitted any manner of Commerce or Traffic with any people whatsoever; and do forbid to all manner of persons, Foreigners, and others, all manner of Commerce, Traffic and Correspondence whatsoever, to be used or held with the said Rebels in the Barbados, Bermuda's, Virginia and Antego, or either of them.
The Act also authorised Parliamentary
privateers
to act against English vessels trading with the rebellious colonies:
All Ships that Trade with the Rebels may be surprized. Goods and tackle of such ships not to be embezeled, till judgement in the Admiralty.; Two or three of the Officers of every ship to be examined upon oath.
Far to the North, Bermuda's regiment of Militia and its coastal batteries prepared to resist an invasion that never came. Built-up inside the natural defence of a nearly impassable barrier reef, to fend off the might of Spain, these defences would have been a formidable obstacle for the Parliamentary fleet sent in 1651 under the command of Admiral Sir
George Ayscue
to subdue the trans-Atlantic colonies, but after the fall of Barbados, the Bermudians made a separate peace that respected the internal status quo. The
Parliament of Bermuda
avoided the Parliament of England's fate during
The Protectorate
, becoming one of the oldest continuous legislatures in the world.
[13]
Virginia's population swelled with Cavaliers during and after the English Civil War. Even so, Virginia Puritan
Richard Bennett
was made Governor answering to Cromwell in 1652, followed by two more nominal "Commonwealth Governors". The loyalty of Virginia's
Cavaliers
to the Crown was rewarded after the 1660 Restoration of the Monarchy when Charles II dubbed it the
Old Dominion
.
Ireland
[
edit
]
Meanwhile, in the
Kingdom of Ireland
(proclaimed such in 1541 but only fully conquered for the Crown in 1603), tensions had also begun to mount.
Thomas Wentworth
, Charles I's
Lord Deputy of Ireland
, angered Catholics by enforcing new taxes while denying them full rights as subjects; he further antagonised wealthy Irish Catholics by repeated initiatives to confiscate and transfer their lands to English colonists. Conditions became explosive in 1639 when Wentworth offered Irish Catholics some reforms in return for their raising and funding an Irish army (led by Protestant officers) to put down the Scottish rebellion. The idea of an
Irish Catholic
army enforcing what many saw as already tyrannical government horrified both the Scottish and the English Parliaments, which in response threatened to invade Ireland.
Wars
[
edit
]
Charles' initial failure to end the
Bishops' Wars
of 1639 and 1640 quickly persuaded the antagonists that force could serve them better than negotiation. The imposition of Bishops and other Anglican practices to the Scottish
Kirk
were opposed by most Scots, who supported a
Presbyterian
system of governance led by a General Assembly, and in individual churches by
ministers
and committees of
elders
. The 1638 National Covenant pledged to oppose such imposed "innovations". Signatories were known as
Covenanters
.
In Ireland, alienated by Church of England domination and frightened by the rhetoric of the English and Scottish Parliaments, a small group of Irish conspirators launched the
Irish Rebellion of 1641
, ostensibly in support of the "King's Rights". The uprising featured widespread violent assaults on Protestant communities in Ireland, both Anglican and dissenter Protestants in Ulster whose practice was similar to the Scottish Kirk. In England and Scotland, rumours spread that the killings had the king's sanction, which, for many, foreshadowed their own fate if the king's Irish troops landed in Britain. Thus the English Parliament refused to pay for a royal army to put down the rebellion in Ireland; instead Parliament decided to raise its own armed forces. The king did likewise, rallying those
Royalists
(some of them members of Parliament) who believed their fortunes were best served by loyalty to the king.
The
English Civil War
ignited in 1642. Scottish
Covenanters
(as Presbyterians there called themselves) joined forces with the English Parliament in late 1643 and played a major role in the ultimate Parliamentary victory. Over the course of more than two years, the king's forces were ground down by the efficiency of those of Parliament, including the
New Model Army
, backed as they were by the financial muscle of the
City of London
. On 5 May 1646, at Southwell, Charles I surrendered to the Scottish army besieging
Newark-on-Trent
. What remained of the English and Welsh Royalist armies and garrisons surrendered piecemeal over the next few months.
Meanwhile, the rebellious Irish Catholics formed their own government?
Confederate Ireland
?intending to help the Royalists in return for religious toleration and political autonomy. Troops from England and Scotland fought in Ireland, and Irish Confederate troops mounted an
expedition to Scotland in 1644
, sparking the
Scottish Civil War
. There, the Royalists gained a series of victories in 1644?1645, but were crushed after the main Covenanter armies returned to Scotland upon the end of the first English Civil War.
The Scots handed Charles over to the English and returned to Scotland, the English Parliament having paid them a large sum for their expenses in the English campaign. After his surrender, Charles was approached by the Scots, the Presbyterians in the English Parliament, and the
Grandees
of the New Model Army, all attempting to reach an accommodation with him and among themselves which would achieve peace while preserving the crown. But now, a breach between the New Model Army and Parliament widened day by day, until the Puritans in Parliament, with allies among the Scots and the remaining Royalists, saw themselves strong enough to challenge the Army, which began the
Second English Civil War
.
The New Model Army vanquished the English Royalists and Parliamentarians, as well as their Scottish
Engager
allies. On account of his secret machinations with the Scottish Engagers, Charles was charged with treason against England.
Subsequently, the Grandees and their civilian supporters failed to reconcile with the king or the Puritan majority in Parliament. The Grandees acted and soldiers were used to
purge
the English Parliament of those who opposed the Army. The resultant
Rump Parliament
of the
Long Parliament
then passed enabling legislation for
putting Charles I on trial for treason
. He was found guilty of treason against the English commons and was executed on 30 January 1649.
After the execution of King Charles I the Rump Parliament passed a series of acts declaring that England was a republic; that the House of Commons?without the House of Lords?would sit as the legislature; and that a
Council of State
would act as the executive power. In the other two kingdoms the execution of Charles caused the warring parties to unite, and they recognised
Charles II
as king of Great Britain, France and Ireland.
To deal with the threat to the English Commonwealth posed by the two kingdoms (Ireland and Scotland), the Rump Parliament first appointed Cromwell to invade and subdue Ireland. In August 1649, he landed an English army at
Rathmines
shortly after the
Siege of Dublin
was abandoned by the Royalists following the
Battle of Rathmines
. Then, in late May 1650, Cromwell left one army to continue
the Irish conquest
and returned to England and to take command of a second English army which
preemptively invaded Scotland
. On 3 September 1650, he defeated the Scottish Covenanters at the
Battle of Dunbar
and his forces then occupied Edinburgh and Scotland south of the
River Forth
. Cromwell was advancing the bulk of his army over the Forth towards
Stirling
, when Charles II, commanding a Scottish Royalist army, stole a march on the English commander, and invaded England from his base in Scotland. Cromwell divided his forces, leaving part in Scotland to complete the conquest there, then led the rest south in pursuit of Charles II.
The Royalist army failed to gather much support from English Royalists as it moved south into England; so, instead of heading directly towards London and certain defeat, Charles aimed for
Worcester
hoping that Wales and the West and Midlands of England would rise against the Commonwealth. This did not happen and, one year to the day after the Battle of Dunbar, the New Model Army and the English militia regiments vanquished the last Royalist army of the English Civil War at the
Battle of Worcester
, on 3 September 1651. It was the last and most decisive battle in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.
Aftermath
[
edit
]
Having defeated all organised opposition, the Grandees of the Parliamentary New Model Army and their civilian supporters dominated the politics of all three nations for the next nine years (see
Interregnum (1649?1660)
). As for England, the Rump Parliament had already decreed it was a republic and a
Commonwealth
. Ireland and Scotland were now subjugated and ruled by military governors, and constituent representatives from both nations were seated in the Rump Parliament of
the Protectorate
, where they were dominated by
Oliver Cromwell
, the Lord Protector. When Cromwell died in 1658, control of the Commonwealth became unstable. In early 1660, General
George Monck
, commanding English occupation forces in Scotland, ordered his troops from the
Coldstream
barracks, marched them south into England, and seized control of London by February 1660.
[20]
There he accumulated allies and agreements among the English and London establishments, including the newly constituted
Convention Parliament
, to which he was elected a member.
Monck, first a
Royalist
campaigner, then a Parliamentary soldier, now contrived the
Restoration
of the monarchy.
Monck arranged
that the Convention Parliament would invite Charles II to return as king of the three realms?which was done by act of Parliament on 1 May 1660.
The Wars of the Three Kingdoms prefigured many of the changes that ultimately would shape modern Britain but, in the short term, these conflicts in fact resolved little for the kingdoms and peoples. The
English Commonwealth
did achieve a notable compromise between the monarchy and republic which survived destabilising problems for nearly the next two hundred years. In practice, Oliver Cromwell exercised political power through his control over Parliament's military forces, but his legal position?and provisions for his succession?remained unclear, even after he became
Lord Protector
. None of the several constitutions proposed during this period was achieved. Thus the Commonwealth and Protectorate of the Parliamentarians?the wars' victors?left no significant new form of government in place after their time.
Still, in the long term, two abiding legacies of British democracy were established during this period:
- after the execution of King Charles I for
high treason
, no future British monarch could expect that their subjects would tolerate perceived
despotism
?the "divine right of kings" no longer existed;
- the excesses of the New Model Army, particularly those during the
Rule of the Major-Generals
, left an abiding mistrust of military dictators and military rule, which persists until today among peoples of British descent or national association.
[e]
English Protestants experienced religious freedom during the
Interregnum
, but there was none for English Catholics. During the term of their control, the Puritan partisans abolished the
Church of England
and the
House of Lords
. Cromwell
denounced the Rump Parliament
and dissolved it by force,
but he failed to establish an acceptable alternative. Nor did he and his supporters move in the direction of popular democracy, as the more radical Parliamentarians (the
Levellers
) wanted.
During the Interregnum, the New Model Army occupied Ireland and Scotland. In Ireland, the new government confiscated almost all lands belonging to Irish Catholics as punishment for the rebellion of 1641; harsh
Penal Laws
also restricted this community. Thousands of Parliamentarian soldiers settled in Ireland on confiscated lands. The Commonwealth abolished the Parliaments of Ireland and Scotland. In theory, these countries had representation in the English Parliament, but as this body never held real powers, representation was ineffective. When Cromwell died in 1658 the Commonwealth fell apart?but without major violence. Historians record that adroit politicians of the time,
especially George Monck
,
prevailed over the looming crisis; Monck in particular was deemed the
victor
sine sanguine,
i.e., "without blood"
, of the Restoration crisis.
[20]
And in 1660, Charles II was restored as king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Under the
English Restoration
the political system returned to the prewar constitutional position. Although Charles II's
Declaration of Breda
in April 1660 had offered reconciliation and promised a general pardon for crimes committed during the English Civil War, the new regime executed or imprisoned for life those directly involved in the
regicide
of Charles I. Royalists dug up Cromwell's corpse and performed a
posthumous execution
. The religiously and politically motivated individuals held responsible for the wars suffered harsh repression. Scotland and Ireland regained their Parliaments, some Irish retrieved confiscated lands, and the New Model Army was disbanded. However, the issues which had caused the wars?religion, the powers of Parliament vis-a-vis the king, and the relationships between the three kingdoms?remained unresolved or, more accurately, postponed, only to re-emerge as matters disputed again and leading to the
Glorious Revolution
of 1688. Only later did the broader features of modern Britain foreshadowed in the civil wars emerge permanently, namely: a Protestant
constitutional monarchy
and a strong
standing army
under civilian control.
[
original research?
]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
"While it is notoriously difficult to determine the number of casualties in any war, it has been estimated that the conflict in England and Wales claimed about 85,000 lives in combat, with a further 127,000 noncombat deaths (including some 40,000 civilians)."
[3]
- ^
Gentles 2007
, p. 3, citing John Morrill, states, "there is no stable, agreed title for the events.... They have been variously labelled the Great Rebellion, the Puritan Revolution, the English Civil War, the English Revolution and most recently, the Wars of the Three Kingdoms."
- ^
Although the term
Wars of the Three Kingdoms
is not new, having been used by James Heath in his book
A Brief Chronicle of all the Chief Actions so fatally Falling out in the three Kingdoms
, first published in 1662,
recent publications' tendency to name these linked conflicts with the term represents a trend by modern historians aiming to take a unified overview rather than treating some of the conflicts as mere background to the
English Civil War
. Some, such as Carlton and Gaunt, have labelled them the
British Civil Wars
.
- ^
Trevor Royle published his 2004 book under different titles. In the UK it was called
Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms
while in the US it was called
The British Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638?1660
Royle 2004
and
Royle 2005
- ^
"Around the rule of the Major-Generals there has grown a legend of military oppression which obscures the limits both of their impact and of their unpopularity" (
Worden 1986
, p. 134)
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Charles I (1600?1649) 1635?before June 1636"
.
Royal Collection Trust
. Retrieved
5 February
2023
.
- ^
a
b
"English Civil Wars"
.
History.com
. Retrieved
4 October
2014
.
- ^
Ohlmeyer, Jane H. (24 April 2018).
"English Civil Wars : Causes, Summary, Facts, & Significance"
.
Encyclopedia Britannica
. Retrieved
19 June
2018
.
- ^
"The origins of the wars of the three kingdoms"
. Archived from
the original
on 25 July 2015
. Retrieved
24 July
2015
.
- ^
Langford Oliver, Vere (1912).
Pym Letters. Caribbeana: Being Miscellaneous Papers Relating to the History, Genealogy, Topography, and Antiquities of the British West Indies. Volume II
. London: Mitchell Hughes and Clarke. p. 14.
The Government is changed. Within twenty days after his arrival, the Governor called an assembly, pretending thereby to reform certain things amiss. All the ministers in the island, Mr. White, Mr. Goldinge, and Mr. Copeland, were Independents, and they had set up a Congregational Church, of which most gentlemen of Council were members or favourers. The burgesses of this
assembly
were picked out of those who were known to be enemies to that way, and they did not suffer a Roundhead (as they term them) to be chosen.
- ^
Lefroy, John Henry (1981).
Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515?1685, Volume I
. Bermuda: The Bermuda Historical Society and The Bermuda National Trust.
- ^
Lefroy, John Henry (1981).
Memorials of the Discovery and Early Settlement of the Bermudas or Somers Islands 1515?1685, Volume I
. Bermuda: The Bermuda Historical Society and The Bermuda National Trust.
- ^
a
b
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911).
"Monk, George"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 723-.
Sources
[
edit
]
- Atkinson, Charles Francis (1911),
"Great Rebellion"
, in
Chisholm, Hugh
(ed.),
Encyclopædia Britannica
, vol. 12 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 403?421
- Burnet, Gilbert (1753).
Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time: From the Restoration of Charles II to the Treaty of Peace at Utrecht, in the Reign of Queen Anne
. London: A. Millar.
- Carlton, Charles (1994) [1992].
Going to the wars: the experience of the British civil wars, 1638?1651
.
Routledge
.
ISBN
0-415-10391-6
.
- Cromwell, Oliver
(1939). Abbott, Wilbur Cortez; Crane, Catherine D. (eds.).
The writings and speeches of Oliver Cromwell
. Clarendon Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-821771-8
.
- Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, ed. (1906).
"The Charge against the King"
.
The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625?1660
. Oxford: Clarendon.
- Gaunt, Peter (1997),
The British Wars 1637?1651
, UK: Routledge,
ISBN
0-415-12966-4
. An 88-page pamphlet.
- Gentles, Ian (2007), "The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, 1638?1652", in Scott, H. M.; Collins, B. W. (eds.),
Modern Wars in Perspective
, Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman
- Henning, Basil Duke, ed. (1983). "MONCK, George (1608?1670), of Potheridge, Merton, Devon.".
The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1660?1690
. Boydell and Brewer
. Retrieved
19 June
2018
– via History of Parliament Online.
- Jane, Lionel Cecil (1905),
The coming of Parliament; England from 1350 to 1660
, New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, pp. 376?377
- Pepys, Samuel
(1660).
The Diary of Samuel Pepys
– via
Wikisource
.
- Raymond, Joad (2005),
The invention of the newspaper: English newsbooks, 1641?1649
,
Oxford University Press
, p.
281
,
ISBN
978-0-19-928234-0
- Royle, Trevor (2004).
Civil War: The War of the Three Kingdoms, 1638?1660
. Little, Brown.
ISBN
978-0-316-86125-0
.
- Royle, Trevor (2005).
Civil War: The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, 1638?1660
. Abacus.
ISBN
978-0-349-11564-1
.
- Worden, Blair (1986),
Stuart England
(illustrated ed.), Phaidon
Further reading
[
edit
]
Great Britain and Ireland
[
edit
]
- Bennett, Martyn (1997).
The Civil Wars in Britain and Ireland, 1638?1651
. Oxford: Blackwell.
ISBN
0-631-19154-2
.
- Bennett, Martyn (2000).
The Civil Wars Experienced: Britain and Ireland, 1638?1661
. Oxford: Routledge.
ISBN
0-415-15901-6
.
- Kenyon, John; Ohlmeyer, Jane, eds. (1998).
The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1638?1660
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
0-19-866222-X
.
- Russell, Conrad
(1991).
The Fall of the British Monarchies, 1637?1642
. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
ISBN
0-19-822754-X
.
- Stevenson, David (1981).
Scottish Covenanters and Irish Confederates: Scottish-Irish Relations in the Mid-Seventeenth Century
. Belfast: Ulster Historical Foundation.
ISBN
0-901905-24-0
.
- Young, John R., ed. (1997).
Celtic Dimensions of the British Civil Wars
. Edinburgh: John Donald.
ISBN
0-85976-452-4
.
England
[
edit
]
Ireland
[
edit
]
- Lenihan, Padraig (2000).
Confederate Catholics at War, 1641?1649
. Cork:
Cork University Press
.
ISBN
1-85918-244-5
.
- O hAnnrachain, Tadhg (2002).
Catholic Reformation in Ireland: The Mission of Rinuccini, 1645?1649
. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
0-19-820891-X
.
- O Siochru, Micheal (1999).
Confederate Ireland, 1642?1649: A Constitutional and Political Analysis
. Dublin: Four Courts Press.
ISBN
1-85182-400-6
.
- O Siochru, Micheal, ed. (2001).
Kingdoms in Crisis: Ireland in the 1640s
. Dublin: Four Courts Press.
ISBN
1-85182-535-5
.
- Perceval-Maxwell, M. (1994).
The Outbreak of the Irish Rebellion of 1641
. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan.
ISBN
0-7171-2173-9
.
- Wheeler, James Scott (1999).
Cromwell in Ireland
. Dublin: Gill & Macmillan.
ISBN
0-7171-2884-9
.
Scotland
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]
- Stevenson, David (1973).
The Scottish Revolution, 1637?1644: The Triumph of the Covenanters
. Newton Abbot: David & Charles.
ISBN
0-7153-6302-6
.
- Stevenson, David (1980).
Alasdair MacColla and the Highland Problem in the Seventeenth Century
. Edinburgh: John Donald.
ISBN
0-85976-055-3
.
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