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??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? (????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????)? ? ????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? , ????? , ??????? ?? ????? ????????????? -? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ^[?] ???? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ???????????? ????? ??????? ???? ????????? ??????? ???? ^[?] ??? ??? ?? ??????, ??? ???? ??????, ???? ???? , ?? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ^[?] ?????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????? ? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ( ???????? ???????? ) ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????????????? ??????????????? ????? ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?????????????? ??????????????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ???, ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ????????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????????? ???????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ???? ^[?]????????????? ?? ????????????? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ? ???? ? ^[?]?????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? , ???????? (??? ??????????? ???? ???????????? , ????????? , ????? ?????? ???) ? ????????????????? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????

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????????? ??????? ????????? ???????????? ????????????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ? ????????? ???? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ??? ???? ???? ^[?] ???????????? ????????????? ???????, ????????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ??? ??????????????? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????? ? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???????????, ???? ??? ??? ? ?? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ??? ??? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???

?????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?????????? ^[?]

??????????? [ ???????? ]

??????????????? ?????? ???? ???????, ??????????? , ????? ????? ????? ??????????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ????????, ????????? ? ??? ????????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ^[?]????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ^[?]

??????? ? ????????? ???? ???? (???-????) ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ? ????? ??????????? ??????? ? ????? ???? ???? ???????? ?????, ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????, ??? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ^[?]^[??] ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ??? ? ??????? ?????? ??? ??? ??????????????? ??????

????????? [ ???????? ]

↑ ^? ^? Classical Arabic Philosophy An Anthology of Sources , Translated by Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. pg. xix
↑ Bakar, Osman. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science . Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1999. pg. 2
↑ Al-Khalili, Jim? "The 'first true scientist ' " ? ? ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ? ???????? ????? ? ????????? ???? ?
↑ I.A., Ahmad (????)? "The Impact of the Qur'anic Conception of Astronomical Phenomena on Islamic Civilization" (??????) ? Vistas in Astronomy ? ?????? 395?403? ????? : 10.1016/0083-6656(95)00033-X ? ?????? : 1995VA.....39..395A ?
↑ Thiele, Rudiger (????? ????), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928?2005", Historia Mathematica , 32 (3): 271?274, ????? : 10.1016/j.hm.2005.05.002
↑ . Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History . New Haven:Yale University Press. pg 57
↑ Dallal, Ahmad. Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History . New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010. pg. 38
↑ Dallal, Ahmad. Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History . New Haven:Yale University Press. pg 39
↑ K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems", European Journal of Physics 16 , p. 14-20, 1995.
↑ R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses", Isis 81 , p. 464?491, 1990.

[classical_Arabic_philosophy-1] ? ^? Classical Arabic Philosophy An Anthology of Sources , Translated by Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. pg. xix

[2] Bakar, Osman. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science . Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, 1999. pg. 2

[3] Al-Khalili, Jim? "The 'first true scientist ' " ? ? ????????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ? ???????? ????? ? ????????? ???? ?

[Ahmad-4] I.A., Ahmad (????)? "The Impact of the Qur'anic Conception of Astronomical Phenomena on Islamic Civilization" (??????) ? Vistas in Astronomy ? ?????? 395?403? ????? : 10.1016/0083-6656(95)00033-X ? ?????? : 1995VA.....39..395A ?

[Thiele-5] Thiele, Rudiger (????? ????), "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928?2005", Historia Mathematica , 32 (3): 271?274, ????? : 10.1016/j.hm.2005.05.002

[Islam,_Science,_and_the_Challenge_of_History-6] . Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History . New Haven:Yale University Press. pg 57

[ahmad-7] Dallal, Ahmad. Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History . New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010. pg. 38

[8] Dallal, Ahmad. Islam, Science, and the Challenge of History . New Haven:Yale University Press. pg 39

[9] K. B. Wolf, "Geometry and dynamics in refracting systems", European Journal of Physics 16 , p. 14-20, 1995.

[rashed90-10] R. Rashed, "A pioneer in anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on burning mirrors and lenses", Isis 81 , p. 464?491, 1990.

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