???? ??????

???? ??????
( ??????????? : Leon Festinger )?
??????? ?????
???????	8 ???? 1919 ; ????? ???????
??????	11 ?????? 1989 (69 ???) ; ????? ???????
??? ??????	?????
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	????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ‏ (1959)
	????? ????? - ?????

???? ?????? ( ??????????? : Leon Festinger )? ( 8 ???? 1919 - 11 ?????? 1989 )? ???? ??? ??????? ? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????????? ? ???????? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????? .

???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?????????? ???? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ????. ?????? ??? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ????????? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????. ^[3]

??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ????????. ^[4]^[5]

??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????? . ??? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ???: ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????? ( ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ) ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ????????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????. ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ???. ^[6]

??? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ^[7]^[8] ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ^[9] ?? ≪??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???? ?????≫. ^[10]

?????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??? ?????? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? (City College of New York) ?? 1939? ????? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? 1942? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????????. ???? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ?? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ?????????? ??????????? (MIT)? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ? ?????? ???????? ? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????? (New School for Social Research).

????? ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????-??????? ???? ????? ?????? (???? ????????) ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??? ????????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? 1939. ?? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?? 1942 ??? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??? ≪ ????? ?????? ≫ ?? ??? ????? (?????? ??? ????????) ???? ??? ??????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???????. ^[11] ??? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? (??????? ????????? ?????)

?? ??? 1945? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ????????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????????? ??????? (MIT) ????? ?????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????. ?????? ????? ?? 1947 ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????????? ????????.

??? 1951? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???????? . ??? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? 1953 (??????? ?????? ???? ) ????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??? ??? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????????? ???.

?? 1955? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????. ???????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??? 1968 ?? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ??????? (???? ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ) (Hermann Staudinger). ??? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????? . ??? ??? ?????? ?????. ^[11]

???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ≪?????? ?? ????? ??????≫ ?? ??? 1959.

????? ??????? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???????. ??? ??? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ??????? (??????? ?????? 1956) (Festinger et al). 1956). ?? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ≪????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ???????: ?????? ?? ???????≫ ("Prophecy from planet clarion call to city flee that flood").

??? ??? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ???????. ??? ????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ??? ????????.

?? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ?? ???????. ?????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ?????????/???????? ????????/??????????. ????? ??? ???????? ??? ≪???? ??????≫ ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???????. ??? ???? ??? ????????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ??? ?????????. [1]

??????? ??????? [ ??? ]

??? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ???????? ??? ???? * ??????? ?????? * ?? ??????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????.???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ????????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ????. ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ???????:

-????: ???? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?????.????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????. ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???????.?????: ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ???????.. ???: ????? ????? ?????? ???????.?????: ???? ????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ??? ????? ??????????.?????: ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????? ????.?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? ???????.

???? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????:

1- ???? ????? ??????: ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ??????: ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ????????.?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????: ????: ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ???????. ?????: ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???????? ???? ????? ???????.?????: ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????.????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ?? ?????.

2- ???? ??? ???????: ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ???????.

3- ???? ?????? ?????????: ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???? ?????? ???? .

4- ???? ??????? ?????????: ??? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? .

?????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????:

?- ????? ???????: ???? ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ??? ????? ??? .???: ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? .? - ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ?????: ????? ??? ??? ????????? ???? ?? ??????? .? ? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????: ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? .

????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???:1- ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??? ???????? .2- ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? . ^[12]

????? ???????? ?????????? [ ??? ]

????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????. ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ???: ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??? ???. ??? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????. ???? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????. ????? ??? ???: ????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?????. ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ????????? ????. ??? ???????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???. ?????? ??? ???: ????? ???? ????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?????. ????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????. ^[5]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

????? ???????? ??????????

??????? [ ??? ]

^ . OCLC : 68272675 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: ?????? |title= ??? ????? ?? ???? (?? ???? ??????) ( ?????? ) ? ?????? |????= ??? ????? ?? ???? ( ?????? )
^ https://www.apa.org/about/awards/scientific-contributions?tab=3 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: |url= ????? ?????? ( ?????? ) ? ?????? |title= ??? ????? ?? ???? (?? ???? ??????) ( ?????? )
^ Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
^ Festinger, L. (1950). lnformal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271?282.
^ ^? ^? Festinger, L. 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7: 117?140.
^ Festinger, Leon; Schachter, Stanley and Back, Kurt. Social Pressures in Informal Groups; a Study of Human Factors in Housing. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1950.
^ Festinger, Leon. 1949. "The Analysis of Sociograms Using Matrix Algebra." Human Relations 10:153?158.
^ Freeman, Linton C. 1992. "The Sociological Concept Of "Group": An Empirical Test of Two Models." American Journal of Sociology 98:152?166.
^ Festinger, Leon, Stanley Schachter and Kurt Back. 1948. Social Pressures in Informal Groups. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
^ Granovetter, Mark. 2005. "The Impact of Social Structure on Economic Outcomes." Journal of Economic Perspectives 19:33?50.
^ ^? ^? Franz Samelson, " Festinger, Leon ", American National Biography Online , February 2000. ???? ?????? 2008-08-20 ?? Wayback Machine
^ ???? ??? ?????,???,???? ???? ?????.??????? ???????? ????????.???????:????? ??????? ?????????,2009 ^{[
???? ??????
]} "???? ??????" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-10-13 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-12-26 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown ( link )

??????? [ ??? ]

Leon Festinger, Henry W. Riecken, & Stanley Schachter, When Prophecy Fails: A Social and Psychological Study of a Modern Group that Predicted the End of the World (University of Minnesota Press; 1956).
Jon R. Stone (ed.). Expecting Armageddon: Essential Readings in Failed Prophecy (Routledge; 2000). ISBN 0-415-92331-X ..
Festinger, L., Schachter, S., Back, K., (1950) "The Spatial Ecology of Group Formation", in L. Festinger, S. Schachter, & K. Back (eds.), Social Pressure in Informal Groups, 1950. Chapter 4.
Milite, G. A. (2001). Festinger, Leon (1919-1989). Encyclopedia of Psychology.
Festinger, Leon. 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Hum. Relations 7:117-40
Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). The Spatial Ecology of Group Formation. (L. Festinger, S. Schachter, & K. W. Back, Eds.)Social pressure in informal groups, 141-161. Stanford University Press. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/paper=904671

????? ?????? [ ??? ]

???? ?????? ??? ???? Encyclopædia Britannica Online (??????????)

Brief biographical page

[wikidata-c85effb6bb81185dbc9a0c4c8f7a4d25f92ae712-1] . OCLC : 68272675 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: ?????? |title= ??? ????? ?? ???? (?? ???? ??????) ( ?????? ) ? ?????? |????= ??? ????? ?? ???? ( ?????? )

[wikidata-c37a1aa26303cc22284fd1b3ba58db62c9aa1cdd-2] ttps://www.apa.org/about/awards/scientific-contributions?tab=3 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: |url= ????? ?????? ( ?????? ) ? ?????? |title= ??? ????? ?? ???? (?? ???? ??????) ( ?????? )

[3] Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.

[4] Festinger, L. (1950). lnformal social communication. Psychological Review, 57, 271?282.

[Festinger1954-5] ? ^? Festinger, L. 1954. A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7: 117?140.

[6] Festinger, Leon; Schachter, Stanley and Back, Kurt. Social Pressures in Informal Groups; a Study of Human Factors in Housing. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1950.

[7] Festinger, Leon. 1949. "The Analysis of Sociograms Using Matrix Algebra." Human Relations 10:153?158.

[8] Freeman, Linton C. 1992. "The Sociological Concept Of "Group": An Empirical Test of Two Models." American Journal of Sociology 98:152?166.

[9] Festinger, Leon, Stanley Schachter and Kurt Back. 1948. Social Pressures in Informal Groups. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

[10] Granovetter, Mark. 2005. "The Impact of Social Structure on Economic Outcomes." Journal of Economic Perspectives 19:33?50.

[anb-11] ? ^? Franz Samelson, " Festinger, Leon ", American National Biography Online , February 2000. ???? ?????? 2008-08-20 ?? Wayback Machine

[12] ???? ??? ?????,???,???? ???? ?????.??????? ???????? ????????.???????:????? ??????? ?????????,2009 ^{[
???? ??????
]} "???? ??????" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-10-13 . ???? ???? ?????? 2012-12-26 . {{ ??????? ??? }}: ????? ?????????: BOT: original URL status unknown ( link )

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