????? ????? ???????

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大? ; ?????? ?????
????? ????? ??????? ???	????? ????? ??????? ????
	?????? : 鞏金? ; "Gong Jin'ou" ; ("??? ????? ??????")
	?????????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???. 1760
?????	?????? (1636 - 1664) ???? (1664 - 1912)
???? ?????	????? ?????
????? ???????	??? ??????? ? ????????? ? ???????? ? ????????
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?????????? ?????	1644?1661
?????????? ???? ????	1908?1912
??? ?????
??????????? ????? ???? ??	1908?1912
???? ???????
???????	1911
???? ?????	1911?1912
???????
???????	1664
??????	1912
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??? 1760 ???????	13?150?000 ??² (5?077?243 ???²)
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	????? ????? - ?????

39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.92°N 116.39°E / 39.92; 116.39

????? ????? ? ????? ????? ???? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ? ???? ??? ????? ????? ? ???? ???? ?? 1644 ???? 1912 ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? 1917. ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ????? .

?????? ??????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??????. ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???. ?????? ??? 1635? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ?? ???? ??????? . ??? ??? 1644? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ????????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??. ??? ?? ??? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ? ??? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ???? ???????. ?????? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ????????. ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ??????. ?????? ??? 1683? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????????? ???? ?? .

??? ????? ????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ??????? . ?????? ???????? ???????????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?? ??????? . ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ?????????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????. ???? ?????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???. ≪???? ????????? ??? ?????????≫ ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???????. ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?????. ????? ????? ????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ?????? 1894?1895 ???? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ??? 1867? ???? ??? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????.

???? ??????? [ ??? ]

????? ???? ??????? [ ??? ]

???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ???????????? ????????. ????? ??????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ????. ^[4]^[5]

????? [ ??? ]

?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? -???? ?????- ?? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ???. ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ≪???????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????≫. ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??? 1582? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????. ????? ??? 1616 ??? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ????? ???????. ^[6]

??? ??? ??????? ???? ????? ≪??????? ??????≫ ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ???????? ????. ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ????????: ????? ???????? ?? ??? 1621? ?? ?????? (?????: ??????) ?? ??? 1625. ^[7]^[8]

????? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????? ????? (??? ???????). ??? ????????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ??? ???????? ?? ?????? ??????. ^[9]

???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?? ???? ???????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????. ??? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ?? ???????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???. ^[9]

????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???? ???? ???????. ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ??? ????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????. ??? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ???????. ???? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???????.

????? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??????????? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? (???? ??? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????). ???? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ????????? ??? ??? ?????. ^[10]

??? ???? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ??????????. ?????? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ????????. ??? ??? ??????? ????? ≪??? ??? ???≫ ??????? (??? ??? ??????) ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ??? ????????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????????. ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????????? ?? ???????? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ??? 1641? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? 1642 ??? ????? ????? ??? ????????. ??? ???? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????. ^[11]

??? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?????. ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ??????. ????? ???? ????? (???????) ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????????. ????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ???????? ?????. ^[12]

???? ??? ??? [ ??? ]

????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? 1626 ????? ???? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ????????. ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????????? ???????. ??? ????? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??? ?????? ????????. ???? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ??? 1627 ??? ?? ???? ?????????. ???? ??? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ??????. ^[13]

?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ?? ??? 1634? ???? ????? ???? (????? ??????) ?? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????. ??? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ≪???????≫ ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? 1635. ?? ??? 1635 ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ????????. ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? . ?? ????? 1636 ??? ??????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????????? ?????????? (?????? ??????? ????????) ?? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ??????. ??? ??????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ?????????? (???? ?????? ???). ????? ???? ????? ??????????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?? ≪??? ??????≫ ??? ≪????? ???????≫ ???? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????. ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ?? ??? 1636. ^[14]

??? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????????. ???? ???? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????? ≪????? ????? ?? ??????? ????≫ ? ≪?????? ???? ??≫ (????? ???? ??) ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ≪??? ??????≫ ????????? ????????. ??????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? (???????) ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ???? ??? ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ???? ??????? ???????. ^[15]

???? ????? [ ??? ]

??????? [ ??? ]

^ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty . {{ ??????? ??? }}: |url= ????? ?????? ( ?????? ) ? ?????? |title= ??? ????? ?? ???? (?? ???? ??????) ( ?????? )
^ Mark C. Elliott. The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China'. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. pp. 290-291. [1] ???? ?????? 2019-03-28 ?? Wayback Machine
^ Turchin? Peter? Adams? Jonathan M.? Hall? Thomas D (?????? 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF) . Journal of world-systems research . ?. 12 ?. 2: 219?229. ISSN : 1076?156x . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2012-08-19 . ???? ???? ?????? 2010-08-12 . {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ???? ?? ??? ???? |issn= ( ?????? )
^ Wakeman Jr (1985) , p. 24 .
^ Crossley (1997) , p. 3.
^ Ebrey (2010) , pp. 220?224.
^ Sneath (2007) , pp. 99?100 .
^ Crossley (1991) , p. 33 .
^ ^? ^? Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Volume 4, p.25
^ Graff & Higham (2012) , p. 116 .
^ Wang (2008) , p. 148 .
^ Crossley (2010) , p. 95.
^ Rawski (1991) , p. 177 .
^ Smith? Richard J. (2015). The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture . Rowman & Littlefield. ?. 216. ISBN : 978-1442221949 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-06-28 . ???? ???? ?????? 2019-06-01 .
^ Hummel? Arthur W.? ?????? (2010). "Nurhaci" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period, 1644?1912 (?. reprint). Global Oriental. ?. I. ?. 598. ISBN : 978-9004218017 – ??? Google Books. "Nurhaci" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-10-25 – ??? Dartmouth.edu.

????? ?????? [ ??? ]

?? ????? ??? ?????? ??: ????? ????? ???????

[wikidata-54770f156640561b6a68bb6dac68ed6d065e066b-1] ttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Qing-dynasty . {{ ??????? ??? }}: |url= ????? ?????? ( ?????? ) ? ?????? |title= ??? ????? ?? ???? (?? ???? ??????) ( ?????? )

[2] Mark C. Elliott. The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China'. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. pp. 290-291. [1] ???? ?????? 2019-03-28 ?? Wayback Machine

[3] Turchin? Peter? Adams? Jonathan M.? Hall? Thomas D (?????? 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF) . Journal of world-systems research . ?. 12 ?. 2: 219?229. ISSN : 1076?156x . ????? ?? ????? (PDF) ?? 2012-08-19 . ???? ???? ?????? 2010-08-12 . {{ ??????? ?????? ????? }}: ???? ?? ??? ???? |issn= ( ?????? )

[FOOTNOTEWakeman_Jr1985[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_8nXLwSG2O8AC/page/n36_24]-4] Wakeman Jr (1985) , p. 24 .

[FOOTNOTECrossley19973-5] Crossley (1997) , p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEEbrey2010220–224-6] Ebrey (2010) , pp. 220?224.

[FOOTNOTESneath2007[https://books.google.com/?id=kWMaAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT113_99–100]-7] Sneath (2007) , pp. 99?100 .

[FOOTNOTECrossley1991[https://books.google.com/books?id=NUTE8V-WhwoC&pg=PA33_33]-8] Crossley (1991) , p. 33 .

[Bernard_Hung-Kay_Luk_p.25-9] ? ^? Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Volume 4, p.25

[FOOTNOTEGraffHigham2012[https://books.google.com/?id=Sn3QpyJn9JIC&pg=PA116_116]-10] Graff & Higham (2012) , p. 116 .

[FOOTNOTEWang2008[https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148_148]-11] Wang (2008) , p. 148 .

[FOOTNOTECrossley201095-12] Crossley (2010) , p. 95.

[FOOTNOTERawski1991[https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA177_177]-13] Rawski (1991) , p. 177 .

[14] Smith? Richard J. (2015). The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture . Rowman & Littlefield. ?. 216. ISBN : 978-1442221949 . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2019-06-28 . ???? ???? ?????? 2019-06-01 .

[15] Hummel? Arthur W.? ?????? (2010). "Nurhaci" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period, 1644?1912 (?. reprint). Global Oriental. ?. I. ?. 598. ISBN : 978-9004218017 – ??? Google Books. "Nurhaci" . ????? ?? ????? ?? 2016-10-25 – ??? Dartmouth.edu.

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

????? ?????
??????
????? ?????? ?. 8500 ? ?. 2070 ? ?
????? ??? ?. 2070 ? ?. 1600 ? ?
????? ???? ?. 1600 ? ?. 1046 ? ?
????? ??? ?. 1046 ? 256 ? ?
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????? ???? 221?206 ? ?
????? ??? 206 ? ? ? 220 ? ?
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??????? ?????? 220?280
??? ? ?? ? ??
????? ??? 265?420
??? ???????
??? ???????	??????? ????? ???
???????? ???????? ????????? 420?589
????? ??? 581?618
????? ???? 618?907
( ????? ??? ??????? 690?705)
???????? ????? ???????? ????? 907?960	????? ???? 907?1125
????? ???? 960?1279
???? ????????		??? ???????
???? ????????	???
????? ???? 1271?1368
????? ???? 1368?1644
????? ????? 1644?1912
??????
??????? ????? 1912?1949
??????? ????? ??????? 1949 ? ?????
?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????
??? ???????: ???? ???? ???

? ? ? ????? ?????????????
????? ???????????? ?????	??????????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????
????? ???????????? ?????? ??????	????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????
????? ???????????? ?????	??????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????
????? ???????????? ?????	????????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????

? ? ? ????????? ??????? ???????
??? ????? ????? ??????? ????????????? ???????	Nerchinsk (1689) Bura (1727) Kyakhta (1727, 1768, 1792) Kulja (1851) Aigun (1858) ??????? (1858) ???? (1860) Tarbagatai (1864) Livadia (1879) Saint Petersburg (1881) Moscow (1896) Peking (1898) Boxer Protocol (1901) Qiqikar (1911)
??? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ?????	Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)
??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????	Sino-Soviet Treaty of Peking (1924) Khabarovsk Protocol (1929) Non-Aggression Pact (1937) Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1945)
??? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????? ???????	Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance (1950) Border Agreement (1991)
??? ????? ????????? ???????? ????? ???????	Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (2001)