jazz
,
musical form
, often improvisational, developed by
African Americans
and influenced by both European harmonic structure and
African
rhythms. It was developed partially from ragtime and
blues
and is often characterized by syncopated rhythms, polyphonic ensemble playing, varying degrees of improvisation, often deliberate deviations of pitch, and the use of original timbres.
Any attempt to arrive at a precise, all-encompassing definition of jazz is probably
futile
. Jazz has been, from its very beginnings at the turn of the 20th century, a constantly evolving, expanding, changing music, passing through several distinctive phases of development; a definition that might apply to one phase?for instance, to
New Orleans style
or
swing
?becomes inappropriate when applied to another segment of its history, say, to
free jazz
. Early attempts to define jazz as a music whose chief characteristic was
improvisation
, for example, turned out to be too restrictive and largely untrue, since
composition
,
arrangement
, and ensemble have also been essential components of jazz for most of its history. Similarly,
syncopation
and swing, often considered essential and unique to jazz, are in fact lacking in much authentic jazz, whether of the
1920s
or of later decades. Again, the long-held notion that swing could not occur without syncopation was roundly disproved when trumpeters
Louis Armstrong
and Bunny Berigan (among others) frequently generated enormous swing while playing repeated, unsyncopated quarter notes.
Jazz, in fact, is not?and never has been?an entirely composed, predetermined music, nor is it an entirely extemporized one. For almost all of its history it has employed both creative approaches in varying degrees and endless permutations. And yet, despite these
diverse
terminological confusions, jazz seems to be instantly recognized and distinguished as something separate from all other forms of
musical expression
. To repeat Armstrong’s famous reply when asked what
swing
meant: “If you have to ask, you’ll never know.” To add to the confusion, there often have been seemingly unbridgeable perceptual differences between the producers of jazz (performers, composers, and arrangers) and its audiences. For example, with the arrival of free jazz and other latter-day avant-garde
manifestations
, many senior musicians maintained that music that didn’t swing was not jazz.
Most early classical composers (such as
Aaron Copland
,
John Alden Carpenter
?and even
Igor Stravinsky
, who became smitten with jazz) were drawn to its instrumental sounds and timbres, the unusual effects and inflections of jazz playing (brass mutes, glissandos, scoops, bends, and stringless ensembles), and its syncopations, completely ignoring, or at least underappreciating, the extemporized aspects of jazz. Indeed, the sounds that jazz musicians make on their instruments?the way they attack, inflect, release, embellish, and colour notes?characterize jazz playing to such an extent that if a classical piece were played by jazz musicians in their idiomatic phrasings, it would in all likelihood be called jazz.
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Nonetheless, one important aspect of jazz clearly does distinguish it from other traditional
musical
areas, especially from classical music: the jazz performer is primarily or wholly a creative, improvising composer?his own composer, as it were?whereas in classical music the performer typically expresses and interprets someone else’s
composition
.
West Africa
in the American South: gathering the musical elements of jazz
The elements that make jazz distinctive derive primarily from West African musical sources as taken to the North American continent by
slaves
, who partially preserved them against all odds in the plantation
culture
of the American South. These elements are not precisely identifiable because they were not documented?at least not until the mid- to late 19th century, and then only sparsely. Furthermore, Black slaves came from diverse West African tribal
cultures
with distinct musical traditions. Thus, a great variety of Black musical sensibilities were assembled on American soil. These in turn rather quickly encountered European musical elements?for example, simple dance and entertainment musics and
shape-note hymn tunes
, such as were prevalent in early 19th-century
North America
.
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The music that eventually became jazz evolved out of a wide-ranging, gradually
assimilated
mixture of Black and white
folk
musics and popular styles, with roots in both West Africa and Europe. It is only a slight oversimplification to assert that the
rhythmic
and structural elements of jazz, as well as some aspects of its customary instrumentation (e.g.,
banjo
or
guitar
and
percussion
), derive primarily from West African traditions, whereas the European influences can be heard not only in the harmonic language of jazz but in its use of such conventional instruments as
trumpet
,
trombone
,
saxophone
,
string bass
, and
piano
.
The syncopations of jazz were not entirely new?they had been the central attraction of one of its forerunners,
ragtime
, and could be heard even earlier in
minstrel music
and in the work of Creole composer
Louis Moreau Gottschalk
(
Bamboula,
subtitled
Danse des Negres,
1844?45, and
Ojos Criollos
, 1859, among others). Nevertheless, jazz syncopation struck nonblack listeners as fascinating and novel, because that particular type of syncopation was not present in European classical music. The syncopations in ragtime and jazz were, in fact, the result of reducing and simplifying (over a period of at least a century) the complex, multilayered, polyrhythmic, and polymetric designs
indigenous
to all kinds of West African ritual dance and ensemble music. In other words, the former accentuations of multiple vertically competing metres were drastically simplified to syncopated accents.
The
provenance
of melody (tune, theme, motive, riff) in jazz is more obscure. In all likelihood, jazz melody evolved out of a simplified residue and mixture of African and European vocal materials intuitively developed by slaves in the
United States
in the 1700s and 1800s?for example, unaccompanied field hollers and
work songs
associated with the changed social conditions of Blacks. The widely prevalent emphasis on
pentatonic
formations came primarily from West Africa, whereas the
diatonic
(and later more chromatic) melodic lines of jazz grew from late 19th- and early 20th-century European
antecedents
.
Harmony
was probably the last aspect of European music to be absorbed by Blacks. But once acquired, harmony was applied as an additional musical resource to religious texts; one result was the gradual development of
spirituals
, borrowing from the white religious revival meetings that African Americans in many parts of the South were urged to attend. One crucial outcome of these musical
acculturations
was the development by Blacks of the so-called
blues scale
, with its “
blue notes”?the flatted third and seventh degrees. This scale is neither particularly African nor particularly European but acquired its peculiar
modality
from
pitch
inflections common to any number of West African languages and musical forms. In effect these highly expressive?and in African terms very meaningful?pitch deviations were superimposed on the diatonic scale common to almost all European classical and
vernacular
music.
That jazz developed uniquely in the United States, not in the Caribbean or in
South America
(or any other realm to which thousands of African Blacks were also transported) is historically fascinating. Many Blacks in those other regions were very often emancipated by the early 1800s and thus were free individuals who actively participated in the cultural development of their own countries. In the case of Brazil, Blacks were so geographically and socially isolated from the white establishment that they simply were able to retain their own African musical traditions in a virtually pure form. It is thus
ironic
that jazz would probably never have evolved had it not been for the
slave trade
as it was practiced specifically in the United States.
Jazz grew from the African American slaves who were prevented from maintaining their native musical traditions and felt the need to substitute some homegrown form of musical expression. Such composers as the Brazilian
mulatto
Jose Mauricio Nunes Garcia were fully in touch with the musical advances of their time that were developing in Europe and wrote music in those styles and traditions. American slaves, by contrast, were restricted not only in their work conditions and religious observances but in leisure activities, including music making. Although slaves who played such instruments as the
violin
,
horn
, and
oboe
were exploited for their musical talents in such cities as Charleston,
South Carolina
, these were exceptional situations. By and large the slaves were
relegated
to picking up whatever little scraps of music were allowed them.