THE WAR IN THE NORTHERN PROVINCES: CHAPTER III: The Bleak Picture
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CHAPTER III
The Bleak Picture
Beginning in December 1967, reports were received of massive enemy troop
movements throughout the country and along the surrounding infiltration routes.
The enemy continued to move his main forces towards Saigon, Da Nang, Hue, Khe
Sanh, the demilitarized zone, and a number of provincial and district capitals.
The number of terrorist incidents rose sharply, as did the number of times Army
units made contact with the enemy. By January of 1968, the enemy was well into
his winter-spring campaign which he had begun in October of 1967. Numerous reports
were received about a major offensive to be undertaken either before or after
Tet
.
Early in 1968 Khe Sanh again became the focal point of enemy activity in
I Corps. All evidence pointed to a North Vietnamese offensive similar to the
one in 1967, only on a much larger scale. Various intelligence sources indicated
that North Vietnamese units, which usually came down and skirted the combat
base outside of artillery range, were moving into the Khe Sanh area to stay.
At first, the reports showed an influx of individual regiments, but then of
a division. The establishment of a front headquarters indicated that at least
two North Vietnamese divisions were in the vicinity.
This buildup around Khe Sanh drastically altered the security picture at
the base. The road over which the base received its supplies had been cut since
August 1967. Enemy activity intensified, and because of increased use of antiaircraft
fire, it was no longer possible for U.S. forces to fly-in supplies with immunity.
The bulk of the 135 tons of supplies required daily had to be parachuted to
the Marine and South Vietnamese forces defending the base.
The main enemy forces in the area were identified as the 325C North Vietnamese
Army Division, which had moved back into the region north of Hill 881 North,
and a newcomer, the 304th North Vietnamese Division, which had crossed over
from Laos and established positions southwest of the base. The 304th, an elite
home-guard division from Hanoi, had been a participant at Dien Bien Phu. In
addition, one regiment of the 324th North Vietnamese Division was located in
the central demilitarized area some ten to fifteen miles from Khe Sanh, fulfilling
a supply role. In the early stages of the siege of Khe Sanh, the presence of
the 320th Division
30
was confirmed north of the Rock Pile within easy reinforcing distance of the
enemy Khe Sanh forces. The 304th and 325C Divisions were known to have armored
units with them and were supported by the North Vietnamese 68th and 164th Artillery
Regiments.
In other sections of I Corps Tactical Zone, intelligence indicated the
presence of the 2d North Vietnamese Army Division in the vicinity of Da Nang,
the 5th and 324B Division in the vicinity of Hue, and elements of the 308th
and 341st Divisions in the northeastern regions of the corps area. For his planned
attack on Hue, the enemy had an unhampered route and ready access to his logistical
bases throughout the A Shau Valley. There were no Free World Forces outposts
in the A Shau like that at Khe Sanh to the north in Quang Tri Province.
One of the many intelligence indicators of the vast increase in the movements
of enemy troops was a U.S. Air Force report of truck sightings during the period.
The reports showed that for the first nine months of 1967 there was a monthly
average of 480 truck sightings; sightings surged to 1,116 in October; 3,82 3
in November; and 6,315 in December. This trend was in sharp contrast to the
monthly average of 256 sightings during the final three months of 1966. The
Air Force also stated that although enemy activity was on the rise throughout
the southern infiltration corridors and tactical zone, the most serious threat
appeared in the tactical area of responsibility of the III Marine Amphibious
Force in northern I Corps.
During mid-January 1968, the undeniable threat in the Khe Sanh area prompted
the greatest concern. Not only had the enemy positioned a large number of forces
around Khe Sanh, but intelligence sources reported that Routes 92 and 9 in Laos
showed signs of an increased logistical movement into that area, indicating
the area had become a pivot point for operations leading towards Khe Sanh. While
it was recognized that the disposition of enemy forces in the Khe Sanh area
was a very real threat to the marines at Khe Sanh, it was also seen as an undeniable
opportunity to direct concentrated air strikes against known enemy positions
on a sustained basis.
Still another sign of reviving North Vietnamese interest in Khe Sanh appeared
earlier on 2 January 1968 when a Marine listening post at the combat base reported
sighting six unidentified persons nearby. A patrol dispatched to check out the
unidentified men killed five when they failed to respond to a challenge. Later
the five killed were identified as a North Vietnamese Army regimental commander,
his operations officer, the signal officer, and two other officers. That these
key men would undertake such a mission reflected high-level enemy interest in
the base.
31
Operation Niagara
None of these developments went unnoticed in Saigon where General Westmoreland
and Headquarters, Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, were monitoring closely
all information as it became available. On 5 January 1968, General Westmoreland
directed his principal operations and intelligence officers to plan for a massive
aerial bombardment program to counter the rapidly increasing threat in the north.
The following morning, Saturday, 6 January, General Westmoreland directed that
the name NIAGARA be given to this fire support plan. The name was felt to be
particularly appropriate because the support concept called for aerial bombs
and artillery shells to fall in such volume as to suggest the falls from which
the operation drew its name.
Two days later, General Westmoreland further amplified his instructions
by directing that the operation be planned in two distinct phases. NIAGARA I
was to entail a comprehensive intelligence effort to locate the enemy in the
area of interest. NIAGARA II was to consist of co-ordinated heavy B-52 tactical
air strikes on a round-the-clock basis against the located targets. General
Westmoreland directed that the intelligence required to support this effort
should encompass everything available from all sources. This support would include
the resources of all United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, and United
States Air Force strike, reconnaissance, and electronic warfare aircraft. In
addition to normal ground intelligence-gathering activities, unattended electronic
ground sensor devices were to be used extensively.
On 6 January 1968, while considering the plans for NIAGARA, General Westmoreland
advised the Commanding General of III Marine Amphibious Force:
The anticipated build-up of enemy forces in the western DMZ area
provides an opportunity to plan a comprehensive intelligence collection effort
and to make preparation for coordination of B-52 and tactical airstrikes. We
should be prepared to surprise and disrupt enemy plans for an offensive against
Khe Sanh with heavy bombing attacks on a sustained basis.
Concerned as General Westmoreland was about that portion of I Corps immediately
south of the western end of the demilitarized zone, he was all too aware that
this was only one area where enemy activity was intensifying. Information becoming
available at an enlarged rate indicated that a major enemy offensive within
the next few weeks was a certainty.
In January 1968 the forces defending the Khe Sanh area included three battalions
of the 26th Marine Regiment under the command of Colonel David E. Lownds. In
addition to the maneuver
32
units in the Khe Sanh Combat Base, an impressive array of artillery and armor
was present. Direct support was provided by 4.2-in. mortars, 105-mm. howitzers,
155-mm. howitzers, and 175-mm. guns. These sixteen 175-mm. guns provided support
by the U.S. Marine positions at Camp Carroll and the Rock Pile. Five tanks having
90mm. guns for their main armament had been present since before Route 9 was
closed. Two Ontos platoons were also at the base. The Ontos is a lightly armored
track vehicle armed with six 106-mm. recoilless rifles. These highly mobile
vehicles could be rapidly mustered at any threatened point. Originally designed
as a tank killer, the Ontos was primarily used in Vietnam by the marines to
support the infantry. These allied forces faced an estimated 15,000 to 20,000
enemy soldiers assigned to two North Vietnamese Army divisions in the immediate
area, a third division within striking distance in the demilitarized zone, and
a fourth one nearby in Laos.
Outside of the combat base itself, there were several areas of tactical
importance. The most critical points were the hill outposts. Both Major General
Rathvon M. Tompkins, Commanding General, 3d Marine Division, and Colonel Lownds,
Commanding Officer of the Khe Sanh Combat Base, were well aware of what had
happened at Dien Bien Phu when the Viet Minh owned the mountains and the French
owned the valley. They therefore considered it essential that the hills around
Khe Sanh remain in the hands of the marines. Hill 881 S, Hill 861, and Hill
950 had been occupied by the marines at the beginning of the year. This arrangement
still left access for the North Vietnamese to the Roa Quan Valley which ran
between Hill 861 and Hill 950. The regimental commander countered this opening
with the newly arrived 2d Marine Battalion. Hill 558 was a small knob centered
in the northwest approach. The regimental commander placed one company on this
hill to control that approach. Even with this unit in position, a flaw remained
in the northern screen. A portion of Hill 861 projected up to block line of
sight between Hill 558 and Hill 861. This stretch of high ground prevented the
two units from supporting each other by fire, thus leaving a corridor through
which the North Vietnamese could move to outflank either marine outpost. This
shortcoming was identified and within a week a company was put on this ridgeline
at a point approximately 400 to 500 meters northeast of Hill 861. Thus, the
valley floor was under surveillance by marines from all the key hills.
The Battle of Khe Sanh?Opening
Round
The Battle of Khe Sanh began at 0530, 21 January 1968, just eight days
before the enemy launched his offensive. The North
33
MAP 5
Vietnamese Army forces hammered the Khe Sanh Combat Base with rocket, mortar,
artillery, small arms, and automatic weapons fire. (
Map 5
) Hundreds of
82-mm. mortar rounds and 122-mm. rockets slammed into the combat base. Virtually
all of the base's ammunition stock and a substantial portion of the fuel supplies
were destroyed. The actions around Khe Sanh Combat Base, when
34
flashed to the world, touched off a political and public uproar as to whether
or not the position should be held.
In South Vietnam where the decisions were made, General Westmoreland and
Lieutenant General Robert E. Cushman, Jr., Commander of III Marine Amphibious
Force, "after discussing all aspects of the situation, were in complete agreement
from the start." The base, with its outpost, blocked the main avenue of approach
into eastern Quang Tri province. The desired solution to the problem, using
airmobile assaults in strength, was not possible owing to lack of both personnel
and aircraft. Had they been available, the weather would have complicated such
an operation before March or April. Not to be overlooked was the possibility
of drawing a major enemy force into a position where it could be decisively
destroyed. Another consideration in the decision was that the defense of Khe
Sanh could be envisioned as a classic example of economy of force. It seemed
certain that two crack North Vietnamese Army divisions which might have been
used elsewhere in the province could be contained by one reinforced Marine regiment
with a major assist from air and artillery strikes. In addition to these two
divisions, two other enemy divisions, held in reserve by the enemy, were never
committed because the situation failed to develop in the enemy's favor.
General Westmoreland had but two choices, to stay and reinforce or get
out. He chose to stay. In his
Report on the War in Vietnam
, General Westmoreland
told why:
The question was whether we could afford the troops to reinforce,
keep them supplied by air, and defeat an enemy far superior in numbers as we
waited for the weather to dear, built forward bases, and made other preparations
for an overland relief expedition. I believed we could do all these things.
With the concurrence of the III Marine Amphibious Commander, LTG Robert E. Cushman,
Jr., I made the decision to reinforce and hold the area while destroying the
enemy with our massive firepower and to prepare for offensive operations when
the weather became favorable.
Meanwhile, at Khe Sanh, the battle was progressing. On 22 January, enemy
mortar fire was placed on Khe Sanh and Hill 881. The enemy firing positions
were in turn taken under fire by tactical air and ground artillery. Two resupply
helicopters and an Air Force fighter-bomber were lost to enemy ground fire.
To the west, across the Laotian border, an enemy force of three battalions assaulted
and overran a friendly Laotian unit positioned astride Route 9.
The enemy attack against the Laotian position had been supported by seven
armored vehicles which had approached along the road. Such a target would normally
have received priority effort for
35
destruction by air, but the weather would not permit it. A flareship, a forward
air controller, and two B-57s circled the position attempting to get a clear
enough view of the action on the ground to hit the attackers. The forward air
controller described the weather: "The scene was low overcast, probably up to
around 2,000 to 3,000 feet solid, with high overcast based at about 12,000 feet
or so. We were unable to work visually in the area at all . . . ."
The Laotian troops, their families, and other local inhabitants evacuated
the overrun position and withdrew to the east. They eventually reached the Special
Forces camp at Lang Vei where the soldiers were added to the defensive effort.
Although the commander of the Laotians had been a reliable source of information
for some time prior to the attack, his report that tanks were a part of the
attacking force was not accepted. Tracks of some type of vehicles could be observed
from the air, but the weather prevented confirmation of the presence of tanks.
Also on 22 January, the 1st Battalion, 9th Marines, was moved into the
Khe Sanh area and instructed to establish positions 1500 meters southwest of
the landing strip at a rock quarry. Five days later, the final battalion allotted
to Khe Sanh reported for duty. This unit, the 37th Vietnamese Army Ranger Battalion,
was positioned along the eastern portion of the perimeter. At this point enemy
activity subsided and remained fairly quiet for some days. The U.S. and Vietnamese
forces, however, remained quite active, particularly in the air.
On 21 January 1968, the day the enemy attack began, General Westmoreland
decided that the time had come to shift from the planning phase, NIAGARA I,
to the strike phase, NIAGARA II and, accordingly, executed it. At 0930 the following
day, the 7th Air Force reported the operation had commenced. Aerial bombardment
and resupply became the heart of the defensive plan for Khe Sanh.
At the same time General Westmoreland ordered the initiation of NIAGARA
II, the other actions were being taken to strengthen the Free World Force's
position in northern I Corps. The 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) moved a forward
command post to the vicinity of Phu Bai, ten kilometers south of Hue, on Route
1. The same day that the 7th Air Force announced the start of NIAGARA, the 1st
Cavalry Division (Airmobile) Headquarters arrived at Phu Bai and opened for
business under the operational control of the III Marine Amphibious Force. This
timely reinforcement provided the commander of the III Marine Amphibious Forces
with the necessary forces to subsequently thwart the enemy's major objective
of capturing the cities of Hue and Quang Tri.
36
CHART 2- KHE SANH TASK FORCE
JANUARY-MARCH 1966
In further reaction to the enemy buildup in northern I Corps, on 25 January
General Westmoreland directed the establishment of a Military Assistance Command
Vietnam Forward Command Post in the I Corps area as soon as possible (The role
this headquarters played in subsequent events is described in Chapter IV.)
As January drew to a close, the Free World Forces at Khe Sanh took stock.
(
Chart 2
) All three battalions of the 26th Marine Regiment were present.
The 1st Battalion, 9th Marines, 1st Battalion, 13th Marines, and the 37th Vietnamese
Army Ranger Battalion were also present. A Civilian Irregular Defense Group
company with its U.S. Army Special Forces advisers and the supporting aircraft
control radar detachment representing the U.S. Air Force rounded out the 6,000
or so men in and around the base.
While the marines waited, they filled sandbags, dug deeper trenches, reinforced
bunkers, conducted local security patrols, and in general established a pattern
that would remain unbroken for the next two months. While the enemy did not
launch a major attack against the Khe Sanh Combat Base at the same time as the
Tet
offensive, he continued to pour indirect fire into all of the U.S.
and Vietnamese Army positions. Following
Tet
, during the first week in
February, the North Vietnamese mounted three of its heaviest ground attacks.
These fights on the hill outposts were extremely bitter. The North Vietnamese
continued to prepare positions for their long-range artillery pieces as well
as for countless smaller supporting weapons. They established numerous supply
37
depots and began construction of their intricate siege works. This intensive
buildup continued long after most of the fighting associated with the
Tet
offensive was over. During the entire time, the heavy enemy bombardment of the
base and its outposts continued.
The Tet Offensive?First Phase
The most important of the Vietnamese holidays,
Tet
, began 29 January
in 1968. The lunar new year season marks the beginning of spring and by the
solar calendar usually falls toward the end of January or in early February.
Work among the Vietnamese usually stops for the first three days of
Tet
and the festival begins with veneration of the family shrine and public worship.
The entire population participate in celebrations, feasts, visits, and gay noisy
public gatherings.
Tet
is traditionally a time of good feeling and family
unity.
The Vietnamese in Hue and the surrounding areas planned the traditional
celebration of
Tet
in late January 1968. A
Tet
cease-fire, traditional
throughout the years of fighting in Vietnam, went into effect at 6 p.m. on 29
January. Many Army of Vietnam soldiers and most Republic of Vietnam government
officials were on leave or off duty and enjoying the holiday season with their
families.
After discussions between President of the Republic of Vietnam Nguyen Van
Thieu and U.S. Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker, General Westmoreland took part in
issuance of a joint declaration of a 36-hour cease-fire to be effective from
the evening of 29 January through the morning of 31 January. Keenly aware of
the ominous situation in the north, General Westmoreland made an exception in
the case of I Corps where the increased enemy activity seriously imperiled the
U.S. positions in the region. The Viet Cong, at the same time, announced a seven-day
Tet
truce to last from 27 January to the early morning of 3 February.
Under the cover of this premeditated subterfuge, the enemy launched attacks
of unprecedented scope.
On the night of 30 January, the North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong forces
violated the truce and struck many of the populated areas of South Vietnam.
It was their largest attack so far?the infamous
Tet
offensive of 1968.
The enemy attack was begun in I and II Corps twenty-four hours ahead of the
attack in the remainder of the country. The enemy main attack kicked off late
on the 30th and the early morning hours of 31 January, employing over 80,000
North Vietnamese and Viet Cong troops. Major assaults were made against Saigon,
Quang Tri, Hue, Da Nang, Nha Trang, Qui Nhon, Kontum City, Ban Me Thuot, My
Tho, Can Tho and Ben Tre. The
38
AERIAL VIEW OF SECTION OF CITADEL WALL IN HUE
enemy drive was successful in penetrating the cities in strength, but, in most
cities, Regional and Popular Forces and the South Vietnam
39
MAP 6
ese Army threw back the enemy thrusts within two or three days. In some cases,
however, heavy fighting continued for some time, especially in the cities of
Ban Me Thuot, Ben Tre, Can Tho, Hue, Kontum City, and Saigon.
The Battle for Hue
Hue, with a population of more than 100,000, as stated earlier, is the
third largest city in South Vietnam. It lies a hundred kilometers south of the
demilitarized zone and ten kilometers west of the coast. The Huong or Perfume
River, running from the southwest to the coast, divides the populated area.
The Citadel, a walled city of about three square kilometers and comprising about
two-
40
thirds of the city, lies on the north bank, and the other third of the city
lies on the south. A railroad bridge on the west and the Nguyen Hoang Bridge,
over which Route 1 passes, connect the two sections. The Citadel is surrounded
by rivers on all four sides. It is further protected by a moat which encircles
perhaps 75 percent of the interior city. The moat is reinforced by two massive
stone walls.
Because of the widespread truce violations by the enemy, the U.S. Military
Assistance Command and the joint General Staff of the Republic of Vietnam officially
terminated the cease-fire on 30 January. In northern I Corps, Brigadier General
Ngo Quang Troung, the commanding general of the 1st Vietnamese Army Infantry
Division, improved security measures and instituted a series of alerts which
placed his units in a state of increased readiness. As a result, the division
headquarters in the northeast comer of the Hue Citadel was on alert on 30 January.
At 0340 hours, 31 January, the enemy initiated a closely co-ordinated rocket,
mortar, and ground assault against Hue. Attacking with seven to ten battalions,
the enemy struck selected targets within the city, both north and south of the
Huong River. (
Map 6
)
The enemy had carefully selected the time for his attack. In addition to
the fact that most military units would normally be at reduced strength because
of the holidays, the weather favored the attacker. The northeast monsoon produced
foul weather which hampered resupply operations and grounded most of the air
support which otherwise would have given the Free World Forces considerable
help.
Under concealment of low fog, the enemy regular units, comprising both
Viet Cong and North Vietnamese, were able to infiltrate the city of Hue with
the help of accomplices inside. The troops quickly captured most of that portion
of the city on the south bank of the Huong River and seized the greater part
of the northern half including the Imperial Citadel. While the division staff
of the 1st Vietnamese Army Division was on 100 percent alert at the division
compound in the northeast corner of the Hue Citadel, only a skeleton staff of
the U.S. Advisory Team of the Vietnamese Army 1st Division was on duty at 1st
Division Headquarters in the Citadel. The remaining members were pinned down
in the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, compound in southern Hue by the
initial enemy assaults. General Troung's action in northern Hue preserved the
commands and staff structure of the division. Many of his officers who lived
in southern Hue probably would not have been able to make their way to division
headquarters once this battle started. Their presence provided a garrison sufficient
when reinforced by the Hac Bao or Black Panther Company to prevent
41
the headquarters from being overrun by the attacking enemy force. The Hoc Boa
or Black Panther Company was an all-volunteer unit used as the division reaction
force.
An enemy ground attack was launched against the Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam, compound located south of the river in southern Hue by elements of
the 4th North Vietnamese Army Regiment. Following the rocket and mortar attack,
the 804th Battalion assaulted the northeast corner of the compound but was repelled
by small arms and automatic weapons fire. A second attack made against the southeast
corner approximately an hour later was also repulsed.
To the north of the Huong River, the 800th and 802d Battalions of the 6th
North Vietnamese Army Regiment assaulted the Citadel. These two battalions drove
from the southwest towards the 1st Vietnamese Army Division Headquarters. At
four o'clock in the morning, the 800th Battalion was blocked by the 1st Vietnamese
Army Division Hac Bao or Black Panther company at the Hue city airfield. After
a brief engagement with the Hac Bao, the 800th Battalion was diverted south.
The 802d Battalion was more successful, having penetrated the 1st Vietnamese
Army Division compound and occupied the medical company cantonment area. The
Hac Bao Company was called to the compound and together with the 200-man division
staff drove the enemy out of the compound. By daylight, the two battalions of
the 6th North Vietnamese Regiment reinforced by the 12th Sapper Battalion, had
occupied the Citadel except for the 1st Vietnamese Army Division Headquarters.
As daylight broke over the embattled city, the enemy had control of all
but the northern corner of Hue. That is to say, the 6th Regiment controlled
the population. The enemy had not attained his two objectives?the 1st Vietnamese
Army Division Headquarters in the Citadel or the Military Assistance Command,
Vietnam, compound. But in these two friendly pockets of resistance the picture
was dark. The red and blue banner with the gold star of the Viet Cong could
be seen flying in the Citadel flag tower.
Also among the holdouts were the scattered Regional Force and Popular Force
units, though many were surrounded and cut off from friendly elements. Particularly
important was the retention of the LCU (Landing Craft, Utility) ramp, and the
1st Signal Brigade's multichannel rapid relay complex. The former comprised
the logistical key to the city of Hue; the latter, the communications gateway
from Khe Sanh and Hue to the south. Outside the city, the North Vietnamese established
blocking positions to stop any reinforcements by U.S. and Vietnamese Army forces
to the embattled elements in Hue City. In southern Hue, the entire area
42
MAP 7
was seized and occupied, except for the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam,
compound by elements of the 4th North Vietnamese Regiment.
Action was immediately taken to relieve the pressure on the two compounds.
(
Map 7
) The 1st Marine Division committed units of the 1st Marine Regiment
as a reaction force to aid the Free World Forces under attack in Hue. General
Troung ordered his 3d Regiment, 1st Airborne Task Force, and the 3d Troop, 7th
Cavalry, to move to the Citadel. Enroute these reaction forces encountered intense
small arms and automatic weapons fire as they neared the city. The 806th North
Vietnamese Army Battalion was occupying positions blocking Highway 1 northwest
of Hue. The 804th Battalion with elements of the Co B, Sapper Battalion and
the K4B
43
Battalion was in southern Hue. The 810th Battalion had established blocking
positions astride Highway 1 leading southwest from Hue. The Free World Forces
fought through these obstacles but again slowed as they encountered intense
fire 700 meters south of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, compound.
However, they continued on and reached the compound. Company A, 1st Battalion,
1st Marines, was the lead element enroute to Hue from Phu Bai along Route 1.
This company was followed by the Command Group of 1st Battalion, 1st Marines,
which arrived at the compound at 1400. During the next three days, three more
Marine companies, two Marine battalion command groups, and a Marine regimental
command group arrived in the compound. A Marine tank platoon was also present.
The marines made an attempt to cross the river on 31 January but were repulsed
by the well dug-in enemy.
On 31 January, the mission of the marines was altered, giving the 1st Vietnamese
Army Division, which was in an area on the north side of the river, responsibility
for that area. While two battalions of the 3d Vietnamese Army Regiment moved
east along the northern bank of the Huong River, two Vietnamese Army Airborne
Battalions and the Cavalry Troop fought their way into the 1st Vietnamese Division
Headquarters compound in the northeast corner of the Citadel.
On 1 February, the Vietnamese forces initiated offensive operations to
clear the enemy from his entrenched positions inside the Citadel, and the marines
opened operations to clear their area south of the river with particular attention
to securing the landing craft ramp. The following day, the 3d Brigade, 1st Cavalry
Division, moved into the operations area to seal off Hue City along the west
and north.
During the early portion of the battle, the weather had been reasonably
good. 2 February proved to be a turning point and conditions following that
date became increasingly worse. The temperature fell into the 50's, which is
quite cool for that part of the country. The prevalent misty drizzle occasionally
turned into a cold drenching rain. As clouds closed in and heavy ground fog
developed, it became difficult to use heavy fire support properly. Tactical
air operations were severely limited and the majority of fire support missions
fell on the howitzer batteries and supporting naval gunfire. Although less restricted
by the poor visibility than aircraft, the artillery still had to be used with
even greater precision. Even then the forward ground observers were occasionally
required to radio corrections to firing batteries based on sound rather than
sight.
During the period from 7 to 11 February the enemy units in and
44
around the Citadel continued to offer stiff resistance. The 60 percent of the
Citadel still in enemy hands included the west wall through which the North
Vietnamese and Viet Cong were able to bring in reinforcements and additional
supplies each night. The enemy was also using steel-bottomed boats to bring
in supplies along the river.
The 3d Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Division arrived on 2 February and was
assigned the mission of blocking the enemy approaches into the city from the
north and west. The brigade had air assaulted into a landing zone about 10 kilometers
northwest of Hue on Highway 1. They then worked their way south and east towards
Hue. The men were tiring, As one trooper put it early in the battle, "We had
gotten less than six hours sleep in the past 48 hours. We didn't have any water
and the river water was too muddy to drink."
It was some time before the pressure was to let up on the men of the 2d
Battalion, 12th Cavalry, of the 3d Brigade. On 4 February, the entire battalion
conducted a daring night march through light mist and ankle-deep water towards
high ground behind the enemy lines. At six the next morning, understandably
exhausted, the battalion mounted their hill objective overlooking a valley still
six kilometers west of Hue.
On 5 February, the 2d Battalion, 12th Cavalry, established positions on
the high ground giving them excellent observation of the main enemy routes in
and out of Hue. From that position, they were able to interdict all daylight
movement of the enemy by calling artillery down on the plains below. The battalion
remained in this location, restricting and disrupting enemy movement until 9
February. During the same period, the 5th Battalion, 7th Cavalry, was conducting
search operations along enemy routes west of that area, then controlled by the
2d of the 12th Cavalry. On 7 February, the 5th Battalion made contact with the
deeply entrenched enemy who had reoccupied the area from which the 2d Battalion,
12th Cavalry, had previously expelled them. Progress was halted by the stubborn
resistance of the enemy at this point. The following day, the 5th Battalion,
7th Cavalry, tried again to breach the enemy's defense but was halted by heavy
volumes of enemy automatic weapons and mortar fire. On 9 February, 5th Battalion
remained in its position as a holding force to contain the enemy while the 2d
Battalion, 12th Cavalry, left their location on the high ground and attacked
northward toward their sister battalion. Enemy resistance stiffened as the battalion
entered the village of Thong Bon Tri. Fighting continued throughout the day,
and the infantry slowly moved northward.
As the fighting raged in the cities and towns and along the rice
45
paddies and rivers in I Corps Tactical Zone, General Creighton W. Abrams, deputy
commander of the Military Assistance Command, and General Cushman conferred
on 8 February in preparation for a conference between General Westmoreland and
General Cushman on 9 February. The result was the concurrent movement of the
two battalions of the 101st Airborne Division into I Corps, one by air to Phu
Bai to join the Marine Task Force X-RAY operating in the southern part of Thua
Thien Province, the other by sea to Da Nang. The second battalion was tasked
to secure the U.S. 35th Engineer Battalion as it moved north repairing Highway
I from Da Nang to Phu Bai.
The South Vietnamese also increased their commitment to the recapture of
Hue. Two battalions reinforced with the Vietnamese Army Cavalry Troop, 1st Division
Reconnaissance Company, and the elite Black Panther Company succeeded in securing
the airfield at Hue and then deployed south of the division headquarters in
the Citadel. The following day, the remaining troops of the 4th Battalion and
the 9th Airborne Battalion were airlifted into the city from Dong Ha and Quang
Tri.
Meanwhile, the 1st Air Cavalry battalions remained in their positions through
11 and 12 February, blocking enemy routes and disrupting all visible movement
by liberal use of artillery and airstrikes. On 12 February, the 5th Battalion
again attacked the well-fortified enemy. By nightfall, there had been no substantial
change in the opposing forces' positions. The cavalry battalions remained in
their general locations until 19 February, conducting aggressive probes of the
enemy positions and blocking the enemy's movement.
The 3d Brigade had been reinforced with the 2d Battalion, 501st Airborne,
which began actively patrolling the vicinity on 19 February. Also on 19 February,
the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, was relieved from its base defense mission at
Camp Evans and was deployed south to the area of operations on 20 February.
The 3d Brigade, controlling four battalions by 20 February, continued to search
north and south of the initial contact area and prepared to attack eastward
towards Hue the next day. According to the brigade's plan, the two 7th Cavalry
battalions were to push into the area of enemy resistance at Thon Que Chu, the
2d Battalion, 501st Airborne, would advance in the center while the 2d Battalion,
12th Cavalry, would advance northward with two companies held as brigade reserve.
During the night the four battalions moved into their attack positions
and at the break of dawn on 21 February began their attack. The advance continued,
with contact becoming increasingly heavy as the enemy contested every foot of
ground. Air strikes,
46
naval gunfire, artillery, and helicopter gunships helped overwhelm the stubborn
enemy and permitted the advancing infantry to maintain steady momentum as they
pushed the North Vietnamese back. Before darkness, the battalions had all reached
their objectives and were within five kilometers of Hue.
That night the battalions went into defensive perimeters, poised to continue
the attack. On 22 February, the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry, remained in the
battle area to search out by-passed pockets of enemy resistance while the other
three battalions pushed their attack eastward to a point approximately two and
a half kilometers from Hue. Heavy resistance was encountered in the afternoon
but the battalions forced the stubbornly fighting North Vietnamese eastward
as they continued their advance. Again on 23 February, the 3d Brigade pressed
its attack and moved astride the enemy's avenues of escape from Hue. Throughout
the day, enemy forces continued their stubborn resistance with mortars, rockets,
and heavy automatic weapons fire. The attack was continued on 24 February against
the desperate but weakening enemy forces.
The marines had been conducting clearing operations throughout southeast
Hue. Marine elements, after securing the area around the Military Assistance
Command, Vietnam, compound had fanned out east and west along the southern bank
of the river. The 2d Battalion, 5th Marines, moved west then south, destroying
bridges over the Phu Cam to prevent the enemy from using them as a means to
enter the area. Although additional sweeps were conducted south of Hue, on 10
February, the area south of the river was declared secure. The marines then
concentrated on the area north of the river.
On 12 February the marines displaced the 1st Battalion, 5th Marines, across
the river by helicopters and LCU's. This battalion relieved the 1st Vietnamese
Airborne Task Force in the southeastern section of the Citadel. At the same
time, two battalions of Vietnamese marines moved into the southwest corner of
the Citadel with the mission to sweep east. The buildup of friendly forces in
the walled city added pressure on the enemy, who in turn doubled his efforts
to accomplish his own mission. From 13 to 22 February the battle swayed back
and forth as the U.S. marines' Vietnamese marines, and Vietnamese Army 1st Division
bore down on the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong within Hue. Ground artillery
and U.S. naval gunfire were used in heavy measure to support the U.S. and Vietnamese
combat force efforts to drive the enemy out of well-entrenched positions within
the city.
During the period 17-22 February, additional pressure was brought to bear
against the enemy. The 3d Brigade, 1st Cavalry,
47
continued to press in from the west. On 19 February, the commanding general
of the 1st Marine Division's Task Force X-RAY was given responsibility for co-ordination
of all fire support in the city. Two days later, the 1st Cavalry Division's
area of operation was extended south to the Huong River and east to the western
wall of the Citadel. As the Cavalry moved to fill this area, they effectively
cut off the remaining major enemy supply route and precipitated a rapid deterioration
of the enemy's strength.
During the night of 23-24 February, the 2d Battalion, 3d Vietnamese Regiment,
executed a surprise night attack westward along the wall in the southeastern
section of the Citadel. The enemy was knocked off balance by the attack but
once it began, he fought savagely. The South Vietnamese persisted and never
lost the momentum their surprise action had given them. During the night they
forced the North Vietnamese to pull back. Included in the ground regained that
night was the plot upon which stood the Citadel flag pole. At 0500 on the 24th,
the yellow and red flag of South Vietnam replaced the Viet Cong banner which
had flown from the flag pole for twenty-five days.
At 0500 the next morning, following a thorough artillery preparation, the
final enemy position was overrun. With the loss of this last toehold in the
southwest corner of the Citadel, the remnants of the ten battalion enemy force
that had attacked and seized the city either fled or became casualties. The
Citadel was secure, and the battle of Hue was officially over.
During the relief of the siege of Hue, the forward headquarters of the
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, considered directing the commanding general
of the 1st Air Cavalry Division to establish a forward command post in the city
of Hue, co-located with the embattled headquarters of General Troung, commanding
general of the 1st Vietnam Army Division. The objective was to establish within
the city a major U.S. headquarters with sufficient command and control, air
mobility, and artillery resources to coordinate and apply the forces necessary
to break the siege. Brigadier General Oscar E. Davis, the assistant division
commander of the 1st Cavalry Division, was designated as the Hue co-ordinator
for the forward headquarters and co-located with General Troung. General Davis
was to assess the situation and recommend directly to General Abrams resources
needed to recapture the Citadel. General Davis's recommendations to divert certain
troops to critical areas, to co-ordinate air and artillery support, and to accelerate
supply procedures were decisive. Within 72 hours of his arrival at General Troung's
headquarters, the siege of Hue was lifted.
The recapture of Hue had been a particularly bitter fight. The
48
AERIAL VIEW OF RUINS OF HUE
battle had formed with four U.S. Army battalions, three U.S. Marine Corps battalions,
and eleven Vietnamese battalions on one side and ten North Vietnamese and Viet
Cong battalions on the other. It involved house-to-house fighting similar to
that in Europe a quarter of a century before. There was extensive damage to
the city where some 116,000 civilians became homeless. It was an expensive battle
in terms of human life. The enemy lost 5,000 soldiers within the city and an
additional 3,000 in the surrounding clashes.
An extremely harsh price was the loss of life among the civilian population.
This loss was the direct result of a systematic selection process followed by
the Communists during the 26 days they occupied the city. In the wake of the
offensive 5,800 civilians were dead or missing. More than 2,800 of these persons
were found in single or mass graves during the months following the attack.
Many of these victims were chosen because of their positions and loyalty to
the Saigon government. As General Westmoreland pointed out, "This was a terrifying
indication of what well might occur should the Communists succeed in gaining
control of South Vietnam."
Intelligence
As the battle for Hue developed, it became rapidly apparent to commanders
on the scene that the 3d Brigade of the 1st Cavalry
49
Division had taken on an unusually large enemy force north and west of the
city. Numerous documents captured during the action indicated the presence of
elements of three unexpected North Vietnamese Army regiments and several local
units of regimental size. The profusion of varying documents revealed that the
enemy was using this portion of Quang Tri Province as a staging area for actions
in Hue. In the last days of the battle, prisoners were captured representing
the 6th North Vietnamese Army Regiment, the 24th Regiment of the 304th North
Vietnamese Division, the 29th Regiment of the 325C North Vietnamese Division,
and the 99th Regiment of the 324B North Vietnamese Division. Interrogation disclosed
that the latter three units had begun moving into the area between 11 and 20
February to reinforce the weakening local forces. What was surprising was that
each of these regiments came from one of the enemy divisions located around
Khe Sanh or other demilitarized zone areas. Their presence in the vicinity of
Hue had been previously unsuspected. The aggressive actions of the 3d Brigade
of the 1st Cavalry Division had seriously disrupted the enemy plans not only
in Hue itself, but quite naturally in those other areas which supplied reinforcing
units.
Shortly after the opening of the enemy's
Tet
offensive, the U.S.
Army made an accelerated effort to obtain an indication of enemy intentions
through compilation of opinions of senior South Vietnamese officers. Possibly
these officers would be more likely than Americans to discern the thinking of
their brothers to the north. Named Operation LEAP FROG, the project produced
information acquired by a team of four U.S. officers who visited each division
in all four corps areas, except the 1st Vietnamese Army Division, which was
totally committed in Hue at the time.
Almost without exception the South Vietnamese Army officers saw the attacks
as politically rather than militarily motivated. Most of the senior Vietnamese
commanders felt the enemy was attempting to obtain a position of strength from
which he could better achieve his goals at any future peace talks. A smaller
group of officers saw the enemy objective as being the discrediting of the South
Vietnamese and U.S. military power to protect the population. With the exception
of the divisions in III Corps, all commanders felt the offensive was an all-out
effort using everything available. Throughout the country, the enemy carried
between three and eight days of food, and many officers reasoned the enemy intended
to win within that time.
Another matter of inquiry was the degree of surprise gained by the enemy
in these assaults. Naturally, those installations not attacked in the early
morning hours of 30 January had the one-day
50
warning given by the first-day attacks. Many other Vietnamese Army commanders
had recovered enemy documents weeks, even months before, that warned of attacks
on cities in their area. There were other general indicators of coming attacks
during the Tet period. Some units received agent, outpost, defector, or prisoner
reports in the hours immediately prior to the attack.
In some instances, although definite information was not available to accurately
predict the time and place of enemy assaults, prudent Vietnamese commanders
had anticipated the likelihood of such assaults and prepared accordingly. Already
discussed was the decision of the 1st Vietnamese Army Division Commander to
keep his division staff on alert in Hue?an action which contributed significantly
to the division's eventual success in repulsing the enemy's savage attack. Another
fortunate action was taken by the Vietnamese 2d Division in Quang Ngai which
called a practice alert for the early morning hours of 31 January. Although
apparently not called as a result of any warning, the alert had considerable
effect in either delaying or disrupting attacks in their area.
Further re-evaluation of the enemy situation led to the conclusion that
the Tet actions were due a change in enemy objectives resulting from the realization
that time, once an ally, had begun to work against the Communists. Intelligence
analysts believed that the enemy had developed two basic objectives as of February
1968. Those goals were to win the war by a political and psychological campaign
and to gain and maintain control of the people. To accomplish these goals the
intelligence people reasoned that the enemy had set for himself three basic
tasks. The first was to present a constant threat in widely separated areas.
The second was to cause as many casualties as possible among U.S., Free World,
and Vietnamese forces. The final task was to gain military victories for propaganda
purposes.
To achieve these aims the enemy had placed the equivalent of four divisions
in the vicinity of the demilitarized zone. An additional overstrengthened division
was located elsewhere in the northern two provinces. The actions at Quang Tri
and Hue were conducted by these troops in an attempt to regain control of the
population.
Battle for Quang Tri
While the struggle for Hue was the most spectacular battle of the
Tet
period in northern I Corps, it was by no means the only one. At Quang Tri City
further north the enemy made a determined attempt to duplicate his initial success
at Hue.
51
AERIAL VIEW OF QUANG TRI
Quang Tri City is the provincial capital for the northernmost province
of South Vietnam. Like Hue, it is located on Route 1 about 10 kilometers inland
from the Gulf of Tonkin. The city is positioned along the east bank of the Thach
Han River some 25 kilometers south of the demilitarized zone.
On the evening of 30 January 1968, a platoon-size unit of the enemy 10th
Sapper Battalion infiltrated the city. The unit's mission was to create confusion
within the city by committing acts of destruction and sabotage while the main
ground attack was being launched by the 812th North Vietnamese Regiment.
The enemy assault was to have started at 0200 on 31 January and accordingly
the sappers went into action at that time. This of course revealed their presence
and intentions. Fortunately, the ground attack by the 812th North Vietnamese
Regiment was delayed because of difficulties imposed by the rain, swollen streams,
and lack of familarity
[sic]
with the area. As a result, Regional and
Popular Forces and elements of the 1st Vietnamese Army Regiment who composed
the internal defense forces of the city were able to concentrate on the sappers
before the main attack took place.
The 812th Regiment began its attack at 0420 on a multiple front. The K-4
Battalion attacked from the east, penetrating the city at several points. This
battalion was to make the main assault and had the mission of securing the left
gate of the Quang Tri Citadel wall and the province section headquarters. (
Map
8
) This
52
MAP 8
53
same battalion was expected to destroy the artillery unit within the compound
and occupy the city prison.
The K-6 Battalion struck from the Southeast between Highway 1 and the railroad.
The mission of this battalion was to attack the Vietnamese Army compound in
the La Vang base area south of the city. The K-5 Battalion was the enemy's regimental
reserve and was to occupy positions southeast of Quang Tri City.
The 814th Battalion, a Viet Cong unit assigned to the North Vietnamese
Army, was to play a secondary role in the attack. Upon completion of the occupation
of the city, it would occupy the whole city, allowing the remainder of the regiment
to redeploy in a crescent formation on the southern side of Quang Tri to block
Vietnamese Army and U.S. forces that were expected to come in as reinforcements
from the vicinity of Hue. The fifth enemy battalion, K-8, also appears to have
had a supporting role during the attack. Its mission was apparently to block
Vietnamese units from reinforcing the city from the north and to reinforce the
battalion committed in the northern portion of the city.
The brunt of the attack fell on the defending Vietnamese Army forces in
and around the city. These forces were composed of the 1st Vietnamese Regiment,
an attached Armored Personnel Carrier Troop, the 9th Army of Vietnam Airborne
Battalion, and the police and Popular Force elements in the city. The 1st Regiment
had two of its own battalions and the Airborne Battalion north and northwest
of the city protecting revolutionary development areas. A third battalion of
the regiment was located northeast of Quang Tri while a fourth battalion was
in the city itself.
As the 814th Viet Cong Battalion attacked Quang Tri from the northeast,
it was decisively engaged by the 9th Airborne Battalion and was unable to enter
the city. However, the pressure on the defending Vietnamese Army forces remained
heavy and, fighting for every foot of ground, they were forced to pull back
into the city. Although the enemy had been unable to take over the city, they
exerted great pressure on its defenders and at noon of the 31st the outcome
of the battle remained uncertain.
The Vietnamese forces were not entirely on their own at Quang Tri City.
On 25 January the 1st Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Division, commanded by Colonel
Donald V. Rattan, had been moved into the area from position near Hue and Phu
Bai. Since 17 January, the brigade's mission had been to launch attacks into
a known enemy base area located roughly 15 kilometers southwest of Quang Tri
City. The brigade had an additional mission to block approaches into the city
from the southwest but was primarily concerned with its offensive mission and
accordingly had two fire bases,
54
MAP 9
55
one 15 kilometers west of the city and one in the middle of the enemy base
area. The action of the 814th Viet Cong Battalion redirected the attention of
the cavalry troops.
Shortly after noon on 31 January, the senior adviser to the Province Chief,
Mr. Robert Brewer, held a conference with the 1st Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division
Commander, Colonel Rattan, and the senior U.S. adviser to the Vietnamese 1st
Regiment. The situation in the city was still in doubt. The enemy had infiltrated
at least a battalion into the city and its defending forces were in need of
immediate assistance. At the time, it appeared that the enemy was reinforcing
from the east and had established fire support positions on the eastern fringes
of the city.
At the time of the assault, the brigade headquarters at Landing Zone BETTY
and other landing zones in addition to the Vietnamese Army base camp at La Vang
had come under sporadic rocket and mortar attacks. A dense fog blanketed the
area. Despite these factors, the brigade was able to react quickly to the new
situation. The 1st Battalion of the 8th Cavalry could not be moved from its
mountain top position in the enemy base area because of the dense fog. Also,
the 1st Battalion, 502d Airborne, of the 101st Airborne Division which was under
operation control of the 1st Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, continued its base
defense mission and tactical operation just west of Quang Tri. (
Map 9
)
This development left only the 1st Battalion of the 12th Cavalry and the
1st Battalion of the 5th Cavalry for use against the attacking enemy. Each of
these battalions had opened new fire bases to the west of the city, along the
river valley leading to Khe Sanh, on 30 January. At approximately 1345 on 30
January, the battalions were directed to close out the new fire bases and launch
their assaults as soon as possible to reduce the enemy's ability to bring additional
forces into the city by blocking avenues of approach and eliminating enemy support.
The two elements would also block or impede withdrawal of enemy forces already
in the city. By 1555, the cavalry battalions had air assaulted into five locations
northeast, east, and southeast of the city. Mr. Brewer's insistence that enemy
troops were in these areas proved to be correct. The helicopters received intense
enemy fire as they landed their troops east of the city. Contact continued until
1900 as the surprised and confused enemy fought with machine guns, mortars,
and recoilless rifles. The cavalry air assaults had straddled the heavy weapons
support of the K-4 Battalion, and the enemy battalion found itself heavily engaged
on the eastern edge of Quang Tri by the Vietnamese Army and in its rear, among
its support elements, by the cavalry. Caught between these forces, it was quickly
rendered ineffective.
56
UH-1B GUNSHIP OF 1ST CAVALRY DIVISION
Shortly after the 12th Cavalry jumped, two companies of the 1st of the
5th Cavalry air-assaulted southeast of Quang Tri. They quickly became heavily
engaged by the enemy. Another enemy battalion, the K-6, found itself wedged
between the Vietnamese Army forces and the cavalrymen. The enemy sustained a
terrific pounding from helicopter gunships and artillery as the 1st Brigade
scout helicopters brought in aerial rocket artillery. As darkness fell, it became
apparent that the shattered enemy had had enough. He attempted to break contact
and withdraw. Because it was difficult to withdraw large units through the cavalry,
enemy forces rapidly broke down into small groups, and some individuals attempted
to get away among the crowds of fleeing refugees. Clashes continued throughout
the night.
Through the 1st of February, the disorganized enemy units sought to avoid
contact. They had suffered a terrible mauling from the Vietnamese Army defenders
within Quang Tri and had been demoralized by the air-assaults, gunships, and
ground attacks of the 1st Cavalry Division. Aerial rocket artillery and helicopter
gunships experienced unusual success against the enemy troops.
By noon on 1 February, Quang Tri City had been cleared of the enemy and
the 1st Brigade immediately initiated pursuit. Moving in ever increasing concentric
circles centered on the city, 1st Brigade elements relentlessly harried the
demoralized enemy. Numerous
57
U.S. ENGINEERS REPAIRING APPROACH TO BRIDGE
heavy contacts with large well-armed enemy forces south of Quang Tri were made.
Other units of the 1st Brigade made smaller contacts. This pursuit continued
throughout the first ten days of February.
The city of Quang Tri was without a doubt one of the major objectives of
the
Tet
offensive. Three factors contributed to the U.S. and Vietnamese
success: the tenacious defense within and around the city on the part of all
of the Vietnamese forces; the timely and accurate tactical intelligence of the
enemy locations provided to the 1st Brigade by the province senior adviser,
Mr. Brewer; and the air mobile tactics of the 1st Cavalry Division. The enemy
paid a high price for his failure. He lost more than 900 soldiers killed and
almost 100 captured in addition to heavy losses in weapons, ammunition, and
equipment.
Enemy Attacks on the Logistical System
Concurrently with assaults on Hue and Quang Tri City and his continued
pressure on Khe Sanh, the enemy struck at the more vulnerable roads, bridges,
and waterways used to supply the friendly positions in the I Corps Tactical
Zone. While a reinforced regiment of U.S. Marines tied down three or four enemy
divisions around Khe Sanh, two enemy divisions were in northeast Quang Tri Prov-
58
ince and elements of three additional divisions were operating along the coastal
plains from Quang Tri City south to the Hai Van Pass, stopping all traffic carrying
supplies north on Highway 1. An 8-inch oil pipe line used to transport aviation
fuel from Tan My to Hue was cut, and the 50,000-gallon capacity storage tanks
at Tan My were destroyed.
The bulk of supplies shipped to Hue from Da Nang were moved by tank landing
ships (LST's). These supplies were transported from the large LST's via the
Huong River to Hue and via the Cua Viet River to Dong Ha by smaller utility
landing craft (LCU). With the commencement of the Tet offensive, the enemy began
a series of harassing attacks to disrupt the delivery of supplies over these
inland waterways.
The only secure terminals for delivery of supplies were the airports at
Quang Tri and Phu Bai. The full use of these facilities was prevented by poor
weather. The U.S. forces were using 2,600 tons of supplies a day, excluding
bulk petroleum items, and an additional 1,000 tons a day were required to reconstitute
stocks needed for a counteroffensive to relieve Khe Sanh.
The logistic situation was critical. Military developments in northern
South Vietnam required an influx of combat troops at a rate that, of necessity,
exceeded the capability to create a supply base for their logistical support
in an orderly and economical fashion. The fundamental approach to support in
Vietnam was to have the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, establish the
basic policies for all services and to have each service implement the basic
policy in accordance with the requirements for that particular service.
To economize as much as possible, planners also decided that support would
be conducted on an area basis for all common supplies. In effect this meant
that the Navy, which had responsibility for area supply in I Corps Tactical
Zone, would provide common supply items such as food and gasoline. This basic
decision remained unchanged although variation in troop densities among the
regions caused occasional modification.
When the enemy opened his
Tet
offensive, he placed an additional
burden on the U.S. supply system then extant in I Corps and already strained
to the breaking point. Colonel Daniel F. Munster, a logistics officer for the
Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, determined the amount of supplies his
units consumed each day and realized he must have additional tonnage to reconstitute
stocks and to build up for the counteroffensive to relieve Khe Sanh which was
tentatively planned to begin 1 April 1968.
During January and February approximately 45,000 U.S. Army
59
troops had deployed into I Corps. Colonel Munster and his fellow planners had
to provide 3,600 tons of supplies daily in an area where existing supply lines
were just barely able to keep up with current requirements. Furthermore, this
tonnage did not include bulk needs for petroleum, oils, and lubricants. Key
decisions were made and implemented during a thirty-day period to stabilize
the situation and prepare for the counteroffensive.
The first decision was that only essentials were to be brought in. As General
Abrams observed, "Anyone who brings in nonessentials is interfering with the
conduct of the war." This decision limited the use of the available means of
transportation to moving only combat essential items into northern I Corps:
only "beans, bullets and gasoline." PX items, beer, and furniture had to be
deferred. Second, the important supply line closed by the enemy actions at the
Hai Van Pass had to be reopened. This task was accomplished through simultaneous
ground attacks from friendly bases along Highway 1 north and south of the blocked
pass. The highway was then repaired and improved. A traffic management agency
was established at Headquarters, III Marine Amphibious Force, in Da Nang to
co-ordinate convoys moving north and south along this critical stretch of Highway
1. This activity was later moved to the forward headquarters of the Military
Assistance Command, Vietnam, and renamed the Convoy Control Center. The first
convoy to move north from Da Nang on the reopened road contained 155 vehicles
and set out on 1 March 1968. The actual volume of supplies moved over Route
1 was less than satisfactory and the subject of concern to the headquarters
of the Provincial Corps, Vietnam. The reopened road had a rated capacity of
250 tons a day, but engineering problems and shortage of cargo vehicles continued.
The next project of importance was the restoration of the fuel line from
Tan My to Hue, and initiation of repairs on the 50,000-barrel storage facility
at Tan My. Both of these requirements were accomplished, but most important
of all was the establishment of a logistical over-the-shore or LOTS facility
east of Quang Tri and construction of a two-lane road to connect the beach with
Highway I.. The LOTS facility was a major accomplishment. Amphibious lighterage
units, terminal service units, U.S. Army Transportation Corps companies, Navy
Seabees, and a Marine Fuel detachment all worked together at top speed to produce
what proved to be the key logistical facility in the area. A POL (petroleum,
oils, and lubricants) line laid from the beach to Highway I and then north to
Dong Ha became the principal supply line for the U.S. Army troops. Sea lines
were laid to accept bulk POL; extensive ammuni-
60
A LARC-5 COMES ASHORE
tion and fuel storage areas were developed; a helicopter refueling and lift-off
point was constructed. Supplies of all types were brought ashore from deep draft
ships by amphibious resupply cargo barges (BARC's) and amphibious resupply cargo
lighters (LARC's). These large amphibious vehicles proved ideal for such work.
Tank landing ships (LST's) and other landing craft were discharged over
a ponton causeway. Each day convoys of transportation truck units moved the
cargo inland from the beach storage to the forward support bases of the combat
divisions. Although originally some skeptical observers predicted that daily
receipts would not exceed 350 short tons, the LOTS facility, later designated
Utah Beach, often greatly exceeded this amount as shown below:
16 March
|
860 Short Tons
|
17 March
|
1252 Short Tons
|
18 March
|
363 Short Tons
|
19 March
|
1232 Short Tons
|
21 March
|
1862 Short Tons
|
22 March
|
816 Short Tons
|
24 March
|
1514 Short Tons
|
29 March
|
1000 Short Tons
|
The U.S. Army's 159th Transportation Battalion (Terminal),
61
LARC-5 OPERATIONS OFF WUNDER BEACH
commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Charles H. Sunder, was the major unit on the
beach. Because of the remarkable achievements of the supply and transportation
personnel of all the services on the beach, the facility became known as Wunder
Beach and the men of the 159th Battalion as Sunder's Wonders.
An unusual occurrence connected with the establishment of
62
CARGO CRAFT AND PATROL BOAT
logistic facilities was the crossing of the North Vietnamese and U.S. main
supply routes north of Hue in early 1968. The North Vietnamese main supply route
originated north of the demilitarized zone and ran south along the coast to
the vicinity of Hue. The establishment of a major U.S. supply point at Wunder
Beach generated a supply route from the beach inland to the operating forces.
Where these two main supply routes crossed, the U.S. efforts to keep the supplies
moving interdicted the enemy supply route.
It was decided to improve the capability of the U.S. Air Force to handle
larger numbers of troops and supplies at the Phu Bai airbase. The Air Force
met this challenge by deploying longerrange navigational equipment and additional
personnel. The marines also assisted by making emergency repairs to extend the
runway, by increasing the number of parking ramps, and by improving administrative
facilities. As the weather improved, air delivery of supplies increased. By
mid-March supplies were being received in sufficient quantities to satisfy daily
needs and build up stocks for the counteroffensive.
Task Force Clearwater
A vital part of the logistic effort in northern I Corps was the
63
RIVER PATROL BOAT
development of uninterrupted inland water lines of communication. The intense
struggle for Hue underscored the importance of these supply lines. Logistic
watercraft using the Huong River to deliver supplies to Hue were subjected to
heavy punishment by rockets, automatic weapons fire, and mines.
The enemy launched a large-scale assault against the vitally important
routes on the Huong and Cua Viet Rivers in northern I Corps. The intensity of
these continuing attacks became so great that on 20 February 1968, General Abrams,
the deputy commander of the forward headquarters of the Military Assistance
Command, requested that a naval task force be organized to coordinate the protection
of the watercraft using the rivers to resupply. Hue and Dong Ha.
In rapid response to this request, Rear Admiral Kenneth L. Veth, Commander
of Naval Forces, Vietnam, organized Task Force CLEARWATER whose headquarters
was operational at Tan My on 24 February. Captain Gerald W. Smith, U.S. Navy,
was designated the task force commander and was placed under the operational
control of the commanding general of the III Marine Amphibious Force. The initial
forces assigned to the Task Force CLEARWATER
64
LANDING CRAFT, MEDIUM
included river patrol boats of naval Task Force 116, helicopter gun ships,
attack aircraft, artillery, and ground security troops. The task force concentrated
on organizing and protecting shipping on the Huong River between Tan My and
Hue and on the Cua Viet River between the port at Cua Viet and the base at Dong
Ha.
Even after the establishment of Task Force CLEARWATER, enemy forces continued
to harass and ambush utility craft as they moved their supplies along the river.
At the end of February the enemy threat was still impressive, but it was apparent
that many of the planned attacks were thwarted by the protective procedures
practiced by Task Force CLEARWATER.
Captain Smith divided Task Force CLEARWATER into the Hue River security
group and the Dong Ha River security group. On 2 March, in recognition of the
enlarged importance that the northern Dong Ha River group was assuming, Captain
Smith moved his headquarters from Tan My to Cua Viet. The original tactics used
by the task force called for the operation of convoys protected by patrol boats
and helicopter gun ships with security forces used to react in cases of ambush.
The Hue River security group received convoys which were formed at Tan My while
the Dong Ha Security group
65
received them from Cua Viet. When formed, the convoys consisted of an escort
unit and a movement unit, both under the command of a designated convoy commander.
The escort unit was to provide for the uninterrupted transit of the movement
unit by employing mine countermeasures and direct fire support and by co-ordinating
aircraft, artillery, and gun fire support.
The nature of Task Force CLEARWATER operations can be understood from this
log dated 26 February 1968:
1. Today's convoy of 3 LCU's, 2 Bladderboats and LCM-8 escorted
by 4 PBRs, I LCM-8 and 4 VNN junks. The convoy departed Tan My for Hue at 0830H.
Preplanned artillery missions were fired into known ambush sites as the convoy
came under B-40/41 attack ... Fire was suppressed by combined fire of gunships,
PBRs and convoy craft. LCU 1574 received one B-40/41 round in the port side
of coxswain flat wounding 2 USA. When the convoy cleared the ambush site the
area was taken under fire by 81mm mortar.
2. When the convoy arrived at Hue at 1120H tank trucks and cargo trucks were
available and offloading commenced immediately.
3. At 1300H convoy of LCUs, 3 empty Bladderboats, and 1 LCM-8 departed Hue for
Tan My . . . gunships provided continual harassment fire into previous ambush
sites as convoy passed. At 1310 the last LCM in the convoy came under R/R fire
but the round fell short. Suppressing fire was immediate from PBRs and gunships....
The remainder of the transit was without incident....
Not all convoys were as fortunate. On the following day, 27 February, a
utility landing craft bearing explosives was hit with a B-40 rocket, and the
craft exploded with such force that the nearest escort river patrol boat was
also disabled.
As the security situation along the waterways gradually improved, convoying
was discontinued, first on the Huong River and then on the Cua Viet. The emphasis
was shifted to sweeps by river patrol boats and mine clearing operations. In
early March, the task force took the offensive and began using river patrol
boats and armored troop carriers for troop insertions and gun fire support.
Since the enemy's ability to conduct ambushes was limited by the presence of
more friendly forces along the bank, he attempted to compensate by the increased
use of mines. To hinder the enemy night emplacement of mines, patrols on the
Cua Viet River often began during the hours of darkness.
page created 15 January 2002
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