????????

???????? ( ?????? : penal colony ) ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? (???????????????????????) ????????????????????????? ????????????????? "??????????" ???????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????? ????????????????? ???????????????????????? ? ???????? ???????????????? ??????????? ? ???????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????

??????????????? [ ??? ]

???????????????????????????????????????????? ??????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????

?????????????? ????????????????????????? ? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ??????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????? ???????????????????????????????? ?????????????? ????? (?????????????????????) ????????????????????????????????????????????????????

??????????????? [ ??? ]

?????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????????????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????? 50,000 ??????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18 ^[1] ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????? ?????????????? 1780 ????????????????????????? ?????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ????????????? ????????? ??? ????????????? ?????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????????????? ??????????????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????? ????????????????? ??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 1800

??????? [ ??? ]

↑ "British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies" . American Historical Review 2 . Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. October 1896 . ??????????? 2007-06-21 .

?????????? [ ??? ]

Diiulio, John J., Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management , Simon and Schuster, 1990. ISBN 0029078830
Dupont, Jerry, "The Common Law Abroad: Constitutional and Legal Legacy of the British Empire", Wm. S. Hein Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0837731259 , 9780837731254
Johnsen, Thomas C., "Vita: Howard Belding Gill: Brief Life of a Prison Reformer: 1890-1989" ???????? 2016-03-03 ??? ?????????????? , Harvard Magazine , September-October 1999, p. 54.
Serrill, M. S., "Norfolk - A Retrospective - New Debate Over a Famous Prison Experiment," Corrections Magazine , Volume 8, Issue 4 (August 1982), pp. 25?32.
Mun Cheong Yong, V. V. Bhanoji Rao, "Singapore-India Relations: A Primer", Study Group on Singapore-India Relations, National University of Singapore Centre for Advanced Studies Contributor Mun Cheong Yong, V. V. Bhanoji Rao, Yong Mun Cheong, Published by NUS Press, 1995. ISBN 9971691957 , 9789971691950

[1] "British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies" . American Historical Review 2 . Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. October 1896 . ??????????? 2007-06-21 .

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