???? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??????????. ???????? ??? ????? ??????????? science ??????? ???????? ????????????.

?????????? ?????????????? ??????????????.

1. ????? ???????? (pure science)
2. ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? (emphirical science)

? ????? ????? ???????

• ? ???????? ????? ??? ????????? ????????????.
• ? ???????? ????? ??? ???????????? ????????????? ??????.

• ????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????
• ??????????? ????? ????? ?????????? ??? ????????????????
• ???? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????
• ????? ??????? ????????????? ????????????? ?????????????????
• ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ?????????

???????????? ?????? ?????????????? ????? ???? ??? :

1. ???? ??????? -???????
2. ????????
3. ????? ????????????
4. ????????

??????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????????.???

1. ??????? ???????????? (synchronic study)
2. ????????? ???????????? (dischronic study)
3. ????????? ???????????? (comparative study 4.???????? ???????????? (historical study)
4. ?????????? ???????????? (??????? ????????????, ???????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????)

??????? ?????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????????????(synchronic study) ??????.

??????: ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????? ??????????

????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? (dischronic study) ??????.?????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ??????.

??????: ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???, ????????, ??????? ?????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????????.

????????? ?????? ???? ???? (1+1+.....) ?? ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? (comparative study ??????.

??????: ??????? ????? ??????, ?????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????????

?? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? . ???????? ???????????? (historical study) ?????? ???? ?????????, ????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????????(historical study) ??????. ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ???????????? ???????? ????????????(historical study) ??????.

??????? ????????????, ???????? ??????????????? ??????? ???????. ???????????????? ????? ?????? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????. ???? ?? ??? ????, ?? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????????? ?????????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????.

1. ?????????? ???????
2. ????????
3. ?????????????? ?????
4. ??? ??????, ???, ??????, ???????
5. ???? ????????
6. ?????????? ?????????
7. ????? ????????? ????????? (?????????-????? ????????
8. ???? ????????

?? ????????????????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?????????????.

1.??????? ??? ??? >?????????????

2.???? ????????? ???? ???????????????? ??????????? ???

3.?????????? ???? ???? ??????????????? ????? ??? ????? ????????? ????????.

????????? ??????????

1.Language is purly human and non instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntirily produced symboles >Edward sappire(language)

2.A language is a system of orbitrarary vocal symbols by means of which a social group co-operater >bloch trager (out lines of linguvistics analysis)

3.the institutoin where by humans communicate and intract with each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory orbitrary symboles >Robert A Hall (Essay on language)

4. from now on i wil consider language to be set in finit of sentence each finit in langht and constucted out of a finite set of sentence >noam chimsky (synthathic structures).

??????=syllabul

• ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?????????????? ??????????.
• ?????, ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????.
• ???????, ???????? ????????? ???????????????? ???????????, ???????????????? ??????????.
• ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????????????? ??? ???????????.
• ??? ??????????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ??????.

?????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????? 150 ?????????? ?????, ???? ??? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????. . ?????????????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????, ??????? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????????. ???? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????, ???? ??? ????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????? ????????????. ? ???? ?? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????, “??” ????? ????? “??”, “?????” ????? ????? “?????” ???????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ????????????????. ? ????????? ????? ?? ??????????, ???? ????? ???????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ? ?????? ???????.

1.???? ????? ?????? - ????????? ??????

????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????????????, ? ??????? ??? ????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????. ??? ???? ??????????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????????? ????. ????? ????? ??? ??????? ???????. ??????, ?????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????, ???????? ???? ????????? ???????? ???? ????????. ???????? ??????, ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ????? ???????? ? ???? ?????? ?????????: ????? one ??? attic ???? neat ???? cop ?????? put

??? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???????????? ??????????? ?????????????.

?????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????????? (genetic relationship) ???????? ??????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????? “????????? ?????? (Comparative Method)” ??? ??????. ? ?????????? ???????? ????? ? ???????? ???????? ????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???????????????.

????? ??????? (Sound Change)

????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???? ??????????????? ??????????? ?????, ???????? /?/ ???????? ?????????? ???? ????? ?????????? /?/ ???????? ????????????????????.

????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????

????? ?????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ??- ??- ????? ??????

???????? ??? ????? ?? (??????????) ? ???????? /?/ ?????????? ??????????????, ?????????? /?/ ????? /?/ ??????? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????????. ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? (front vowels) ????? /?/ ????? /?/ ??????? ??????? . ? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????. ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ????

??????????? ??? ???????? 8 ? ??????? ???? ???? ( <*????) ??? ??????? ??????? ????? (?????), ???? (????), ?????? (??????) ?????????? ?-???????? ??????. ??????? ???? ??????????? ??? ??????? ???? ? ????? ?-?????? ????? ?????, ??? ??????? ????? ? ???????? /?/-???????? ??????? ??? ?????????????.

? ????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ????????, ????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ?????????????? ???????? ??????????????. ?????? ??????, ???????? ????-????????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????. ???? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ????????????????? ??????????????. ????? ?? (cognate) ???????? "???? ??????" ??????????? ????? ????? ?????? "????? ????????? (Sound Correspondence)" ???????? ????? ?????????.

????????, "???" ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? deus ???? ???, ??? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? theos ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????????. ????, ???????, ?????? ???????? /d/ ??????? ?????? ??????? /th/ ??????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ???? ? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ?????? (false cognates) ???????????????. ????????, ?????? ??????? theos, ?????? ??????? fes-, festus ?????, ????? ?????? ? ?????????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ? ????????? ????? ?????????, ??????? ????????? ???????????????.

???????, ? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????. ?????????? ??????? erku (=?????) ??????? ????-????????? ??? ??????? *dw- (*???-) ?? ?? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ???????????. ? ????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? /five/ ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? /???/ ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??????????.

?????? ??????????? ???????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?. ???. ???? (A. F. Pott) ??? ?????? ????????? "???????????? ???? ????? ?????? ???????? (Exceptionless Sound Laws)" ???????? ?????? ?????????.

2.???????? ??????

????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????????? ? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????????. ???????? ?????? ???? ? ????? ????????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???: ????????? ??????, ???? ?????? ??????, ????????? ??????, ???????????? ??????, ????????, ??????? ?????????? ??????, ???????????? ???? ?????? ?????????. ?? ??? ???? ???????????????? ?????????? ????? ????? ????????????, ???????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????. ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ????????? ?????. ?????, ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ? ???????? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ????? ??????????. ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????????????: ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ???????????????, ?????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ??????.

???? ????????? ????????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ?? ?????? Swadesh list. ???? ? ???????? ???? ???????? ????? ????? Morris Swadesh ???? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????????????? ???? ????? ???????? (glottochronology) ?????????? ???????????? ??? ????????????? ???????. ???????? ?????? ????? ???????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????????? Swadesh ????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????????. ?????, ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ? ?????? ?? ??????? ???????????????.

3.??????????? ?????, ???? ?????

????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????????????, ??????????? ??????????? ??????, ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????????. ??????????? ????? ??????????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????????????. ???? ??? ???????? ??????????? ?????, ?????? ????? ????????????, ???????? ????? ?????-??????-??. ? ???? ??????? ??????, ??????, ???????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ??????????? ?????????? ????.

?????, “????” ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ???? ??? “??”, ?????? ????? ??? “??”, ??????????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???????? ????? ??? “?????”. ????????? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????. ? ?????? ???????? ???????? ????? ????. ??? ??????? ????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ?????????????????. ???????? ??????? ????????????? /?/, /?/, /?/, /?/, /?/ (?????????) ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????. ???????? ??????? ????? ????? /?/. ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ??? ???? “????” ??? “??” ??? ?????????????. ? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ?-?????? ????? ????? ???. ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????, ????, ????, ????, ????, ???? ???? ?????. ? ???? ?????? ???????? ????????, ???????????? ????????? ????????, ????????? ???????????????? ?????????

4.????????? ?????? (Comparative Method)

?????? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????????? (genetic relationship) ????????????? “? ????? ???? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ????????? (sound correspondence) ?????????.” ? ????? ?????????????? ?????? ??? ?????????, ??????? ? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? (proto-language) ?? ????????????? ?????????? ? ????? ??? ???? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????. ? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???????? (nearness) ?? ???? ????? ????????. ? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????.

???????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???:

1. ????? ?? ????? 2. ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? 3. ??? ????????, ??? ?????? ????????? 4. ??? ??? ?????????????

???????? ????? ??????? ???????? ? ???? ?????? ?????????:

????-????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? Sanskrit Avestan Greek Latin Gothic English pitar pitar pater pater fadar father pada padam poda pedem fotu foot da?a dasa deka decem taihun ten

????? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ????????? ?????? /?/ ????? ????????, ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? /f/ ??????? ????????????? ??????????. ??????? ????? ????? ????? /?/ ????? ????????? ??????/T/ ??????? ???????? ??????????? ???? ???????????. ????? ? ?????? ????????? ???????????????? ? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????????? ? ???????????????? ????????????. ?????? ????????? ????????????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? 2500 ????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????? (???: Grassmann’s Law) !

????? ? ??????? ????????? ?????????: Sanskrit Avestan Greek Latin Gothic English ??? ?????? bhratar bratar phrater frater brothar brother *bhrater bharami barami phero fero baira bear *bher

?????????? /?/ ????? ??, ????????? /?/ ???????, ?????? ??????? /?/ ??????? ?????? ????? /f/ ???????, ????????, ?????? ?????? /?/ ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ??????, ? ??????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ???????????? ??? ???????, ??????, ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ? ??????? ??? ???????? ????????????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????. ? ??????? ?????? ??? ???? ???????????? ?????????:

Sanskrit Avestan Greek Latin Gothic English ??? ??????

pitar pitar pater pater fadar father *p@-t-er padam padam poda pedem fotu foot *ped bhratar bratar phrater frater brothar brother *bhrater bharami barami phero fero baira bear *bher jivah jivo wiwos qius quick (’living’) *gwei sanah hano henee senex sinista senile *sen virah viro wir wair were (wolf) (’man’) *wiro tri tri tris tres thri three *trei da?a dasa deka decem taihun ten *dekm ?atam satem he-katon centum hund (rath) hundred *dkm-tom

???????, ?????? ????-????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????????, ???? ??? ?????????, ??? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ????-????????? ??? ????? ????????????????????. ??????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????????? ? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????????? ? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????.

? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????, ?????????? ?????????????????????[6]. ???? ?? ????? ??????????? ? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????????, ???? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????. ?????? ??????, ??????? ???????

?????? ?? ???? ????? “??”, ????? ????? ????? “?????” ???????????? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ????????????. ?????? ????-?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????????????? ??? ??????[8]:

1. ?? (????????) ??? (?????) ?? (????) ??? (?????) ?? (?????) ????/???? (??????) 2. ???/???? (????????) ?? (?????) ?? ?? (?????) ???/???? (?????) ?? (?????)

?????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????/?????? ???????. ????, ?????? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?- ????? ??- ??????? ????, ??- ??????? ???? ?????????? ??? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????. ????? ?- ????? ?-??????? ????? ????-?????? ?????? ???? ???????. ? ????? ??????? ?????? ???- ????? ???- ???????, ???? ?- ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????????. ?????? “??” ????? “??” ????? ????? ????????????? ?????????? *? > ? ????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ????????????. ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ?- ????? ?- ??????? ?????????, ???????? ?- ????? ?- ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????????.

???????? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ????- ??????? ??????? ??????? *???, *????? > *????, *???, *??? ???? ????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????. ????-, ?????- ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????. ????? ?????- ???? ????? *???-/*????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?????. ???????, ?????? (???+???), ?????? (????? ??????), ??????? ???? ???- ????? ??????? ???????? ?????????.

????-????????? ??????????? ???????? ????????, ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???? ???? ??????????? ?????? ???????, ???????, ??????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ????? ????????????????.

????-????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????

Sanskrit Avestan Greek Latin Gothic English

• oi- eka a?uua oios ?nus ains one
• duwo / *dwo dva duua du? duo twai two
• treyes tri θri treis tr?s þreis three
• kwetw- catur ?aθware tessares quattuor fidwor four
• penkwe panca pa??a pente quinque fimf five
• sweks / *seks ?a? x?uua? heks sex saihs six
• sept@m sapta hapta hepta septem sibun seven
• okto a??a a?ta okt? oct? ahtau eight
• new@n nava nauua ennea novem niun nine
• dek@mt da?a dasa deka decem taihun ten
• dkm-tom ?atam satem he-katon centum hund (rath) hund-red

??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????

• ???/*????? ????? ???? ????
• ???/*??? ???/?????/????? ???/????? ???/????
• ????-/*??-/*??????- ?????? ????? ????
• ????- ?????? ?????? ??????
• ???-??- ????/???? ???/????? ?????
• ????- ??? ??? ???
• ???- ??? ??? ???
• ???- ????? ????????? / ??????? ????
• ????-/*????- ????? ???????? ???????
• ?@-/*?????- ????? ??? ?????
• ????- ???? ???? ????

?????? ????????? ??????????? ????

???? ?????? ????????? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ?? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ????????. ????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ???????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????. ????? ? ?????????? ??????????? ????????, ???????????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????.

???????? ?? ????? ????. ??. 3000 ????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????, “???” ??? ?????? ??????? ‘???? ??????????’?? ???? ?? ?????????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????. ?????, ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????. ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????, ????? ???? ???? ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????. ??? ????? ???, ????, ????? ???? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????. ????. ??. 2000 ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??? ????????? ?? ?????????? ????? ???????? ????????????? ??? ????????????. ???? ????. ??. 1100 ???? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ? ????? ??????? ???????????????? ????????????? ??????? ????. ??? ????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ???????????????. ??????? ??????? ????? ???????????? ??? ?????, ?????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????????????? ??? ????? ?????????. ????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ????. ????? ???? ???? ????????????? ‘???????’ ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ???????? ????????????.

??????, ????? ???????? ????????, ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ? ???? ?????? ???????? ???? ? ????? ????????. “??????”, “?????” ?????? ??????????? ???????, ?????? ???? ?????, ???? ?????, ?????? ????? ????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????????? [????] [?????????] ????? ?????????? ?????, ? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ???? ????????. ???????????? ????? ???????? ??????, ?????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????? ? ????? ??????? ????. ???????? ??????, ??????????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ????? ?????????????, ????????? ???????????? ? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????????. ??????????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ? ????? “?????” ??? ????? ?????? ????? ?????????????? ???? ???????? ???? ????????? ???? ????? ?????????????. ???????? ????? ??????, ??? ?????? ?????? ??????????????? ??? ????? ?????? ????????????. ?????? ??? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????-?????? ???. ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ???????-????????? ???? ??????????? ????????. ?????? ????? ? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ?????????? ????????????.

?????? ???????????? ???? ????????? ? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????????. ???????? ?? ?? ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????. ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????. ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????, ???????? ( (Logical Reasoning and Analytical Skills) ?????? ????????? ??????. ????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ????????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ???????? ???????, ??? ????????? ?????????????, ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ????????. ?? ??????

????? ??????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? (Linguistic Area) ?? ????????????. ????-?????? ?????, ??????? ?????, ????? ?????, ????????-??????? ????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????????????. ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ? ??? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????? ????. ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??????[8][10][11]. ?????????? ? ????? ?????? ????????????????? ???????? ????????? ???? ?????. ????????, ???????? ???????? ??????????, ???????????, ?????????, ???????, ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ? ???????????? ?????????.

????????? ???????????? ?? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ??????????????. ???????????? ??????? ??????, ????????? ??????? ??????, ?????????? ?????????????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????, ?????????? ???? ????. ????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ???? ??????. ????? ??? ?????? ??????, ??????????? ? ????? ???, ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????????? ????????? ????? ???? ????????????. ??????? ????????? ???????????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ?????????? ????????? ???? ???????? - ?? ???????????? ????? ????? ????????????? ??????? ??? ?????????????? ???????? ??????? ????, ?????? ???????? ???? ????????????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ???. ???? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ???????, ??????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???????? ???????????. ?????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????????????.

????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????, ??????? ?????????, ??????? ?????????????????? ???????????. ??????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ????????. ???? ? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ??????, ?????? (training and infrastructure) ?? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????. ?????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????????????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????????, ???????? ??????????????????. ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????, ????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????????? ??????????????. ?????? ???? ??????????, ???? ?????? ?????? ? ?????????????? ????????? ??????. ?????? ???? ??????????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ?? ??????????????? ???????? ??????. ?? ????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ???????????, ???????????? ???????????????. ? ?????? ???????? ?? ?????????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ????, ??????, ????????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ??? ??????. ??????? ????????

Principles of Historical Linguistics, Hans Hock [1991]

Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, Lyle Campbell [2004]

Dravidian Languages, Bhadriraju Krishnamurti [2003]

????? ???? ???????, ???? ??????? [1947]

Why “mama” and “Papa”? Roman Jakobson [1959]

On the limits of Comparative Method, S. P. Harrison in “The Handbook of Historical Linguistics: Brian D. Joseph, Richard D. Janda” [2003

Language, Culture, and Society: key topics in linguistic anthropology, Christine Jourdan, Kevin Tuite [2006]

The Indo-Aryan Languages Colin P. Masica [1991]

indo-European Numerals, Jadranka Gvozdanovi? [1992]

Linguistic Archaeology Of South Asia, Franklin C. Southworth [2005]

The Munda Languages, Norman H. Zide (Editor), Gregory D. S. Anderson (Editor) [2006]