한국   대만   중국   일본 
??????? - ????? ?????????????? ?????????????????? ????

???????

????????????? ????
??????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???????.
( ?????? ????????? ????????????????)
?????? ????????
Российская Федерация
Rossiyskaya Federatsiya
கொடி of Russia
????
சின்னம் of Russia
???????
???????????:  
( ???????? ?????????? ??????????? )
Russiaஅமைவிடம்
???????? ??????
????? ???? ????????
????? ????(???) ???????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ???????????; 27 ???? ??????? ??????? ???????????????? ??? ??????????? ??????????? ?????.
???? ???????
(2010)
81% ????????
3.7% ?????
1.4% ??????????
1.1% ????????
1% ???????
11.8% ????????? ???????????????????? [1]
?????? ????????
????????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?????????????? ????????
? ????????
?????????? ????????
? ???????
?????? ????????????
?????????? Federal Assembly
?  ?????
Federation Council
?  ?????
State Duma
??????????
862
882
1169
1283
16 ????? 1547
22 ???????? 1721
7 ??????? 1917
10 ???????? 1922
? ?????? ????????
25 ???????? 1991
??????
? ???????
17,075,400 km 2 (6,592,800 sq mi) ( ???????? )
? ???? (%)
13 [2] (?????????????? ?????)
?????? ????
? 2012 ?????????
143,200,000 [3] ( 9-???? )
? ????????
8.3/km 2 (21.5/sq mi) ( 217??? )
??.?.?.   ( ??.?.?. ) 2011 ?????????
? ???????
$2.383  ??????????? [4]
? ??????????
$16,736 [4]
??.?.?.   (???????) 2011 ?????????
? ???????
$1.850  ??????????? [4]
? ??????????
$12,993 [4]
????   (2008) 42.3 [5] (83-????)
Error: Invalid Gini value
?????   (2011) 0.755 [6]
Error: Invalid HDI value  ·  66???
?????? ?????? ( RUB )
??? ????? ?.?.?? +3 to +12 (exc. +5)
????? ??????? dd.mm.yyyy
?????? ????????? right
????????????? +7
?????? ???? .ru , .su , .рф

??????? ( Russia ) ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????. [7] ??????????? ???????????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????. ??????? ?????, ?????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????????? ?????.

?????? ???????? ??? Росси?йская Федера?ция ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya ?????? ????????? ???????????? ) ?????? ?????????? ??????? (?????? ????????: Росси?я, ?????? ????????????: Rossiya ?????? Rossija ) ?? ????????????????. ????? , ??????? ???? ??????????? ???? ????????????? ??????????? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????? 17,075,200 ???? ???????????. ???????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? , ??????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?????? ??????????. ???????, ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????????. ??????? 143-145 ????????? ?????? (2002-??? ????????????????? ?????????? 145,513,037) ??????????? ?????????????. ????????? ?? ????? ??????????? ??????? 40% ??????? ???????????? ????????????. 11 ?????? ??? ??????????? ( Time zone ) ????, ????? ???????? ??????????????? ???????. ??????? ???????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????????????? (8,087,900 ?.????.) ??????????????, ???????? ?????? ??? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ?????. [8] ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ????????? [9] ?????? ????? ????? ???????, ?????? ???? ????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ????????????. [10] [11] ???????, ????????? ?????????? ??? ??? ???????? ????????? ????????? (???????????????? ??????????? ??????): ?????? , ?????????? , ????????? , ??????? , ???????????? , ??????? , ??????? , ??????? , ???????? , ?????????? , ????????? , ???? , ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? .

??????????? ??????, ??.?. 3-??? ????? 8-??? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????????? ????????????. [12] ???? ????? ????????????, ???????? ??????? ???? ????????? 9-???? ???????????? "????" ??????? ????? ??? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????. 988-??? ???????, ???? ???? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????????? ??????????????. [13] ???, ?????????? ?????????, ????????? ????????? ???????, ?????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????. [13] ??? ?????????? ???? "????" ???? ?? ????? ?????????? ???????????. ???????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????. [14] ???????, ???????? ?????? ????? ( Grand Duchy of Moscow ) ??????????? ??????? ?????? "????" ??????????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????????? "????? ????" ????????? ?????????, ??????? ????????? ????????? ???????? ????????. ??? ????????? ???????????? ???????, ??? ????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ??? 18-??? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ????????. ?????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ???, ??????????? ??????? ????? ?? ????????????? ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ????????. [15] [16]

??????? ????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????????, ??????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????? ?????????. 1917-??? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? 15 ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ????????. [17] ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????. ???????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????? ????????. ???????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ??? ????????????? ????????. [18] [19] ??????? ???????? ????????? 20-??? ???????????? ??????? ??????????????? ?? ??????????? ?????????????? ????????. ?????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ????????. 1991-??? ??????? ??????? ??????????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????????. ???????, ????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????????????????????.

???????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????, ???????? ????? ?????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????????? ??????. ???? ?????????????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????????. ??? ?????? ?????? ???????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ?????. ?????? ?????????????????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????. ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????????, ??8 , ??20 , ???????? ??? , ????-??????? ??????????? ??????????? , ???????? ??????????? ??????? , ??????? ??????????? ?????? , ??????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????? ??????? , ??? ???? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????.

?????? ??????? [ ???? ]

??????????? ?????? ???? 143 ????????? ?????. ????? ???????? ????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? 8.3/???? 2 ?????. ??????? 78% ?????? ????????? ????????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????????. ??????????? 80% ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????????. ??????? ???? ?? ?????????? ?? ?????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????????????? ???????????????.

?????? [ ???? ]

????????? ???????: ?????? ??????

????????? [ ???? ]

??????? ??????:?????- ???????? ???????? ??????? ???? ??????

35000 ????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???? ???????????? ???????????????????????. [ ?????? ???? ] 41000 ????????????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???? ???????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ???????????????????????. [ ?????? ???? ]

???????????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????? ??????? ????????. [20] ?????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????, [20] ??????????, [21] ?????????, [22] ??????? ???????, [23] ???? ????????? ???????????????????????. ??? ?????? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ?????????????????? ??????????? ?????????.

???????, ????? ????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???? ???????????????????. ??.?.??. 8?? ??????????????????, ?????? ??????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ???? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????. [24] ??.?. 3??-4?? ??????????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????????? ???????????. ?????????? ????????????? ??? ??? ???????????????. ??.?. 3?? ????????????????, 6?? ???????????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ??????. [25] ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????. [26] 10?? ?????????? ???, ???????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? , ??????????????? ????????? ???? ?????? ???????????? ????? ???????????. [27]

???? ??????????? ????????????, ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????? ????????? ????????? ?? ??? ?????????????? ?????????????. [28] ??????? ???????????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????????: ???, ???????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ????????, ????????????????????, ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????????????. 7?? ?????????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????????, [29] ????? ??????? ??????, ????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????-??????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ????????.

????? ????? [ ???? ]

11?? ???????????? ????? ?????

9?? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????????, ???????? ???? ??????????? ??????????????, ??????????????, ?????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ?????????????????. ??????????? ??????? ?????????????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????????. ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??? ????? ????????????. [30] ????? ?????????? ????????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? 862?? ????????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????? ???????. ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????? [31] ????? ????????? ??????????????. ?????, ?????????? ????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????????????, ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????. ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ??????????? ???????????, ???????? ????? ????????????? ?????????????? ????????????.

10?? ?????????? ????? 11?? ?????????? ???, ????? ????? ??????????? ?????, ??????? ??????? ??????????. [32] ??? ?????????? (980?1015) ??????? ????? ????? ??????????? ????????? (1019?1054) ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????. ????????????????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????????????, ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????????.

11?? ??????? 12?? ???????????????, ?????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????, ????????? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???????????????. [33]

???????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????????

????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????. ?????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????? ??????????-????????, ?????????? ????????? ????????, ???????????? ???????-?????????? ????? ??????? ??????? ????????.

???????? 1237?40?? ????????????? ??????????????? ????? ????? ???????????. [34] ??? ?????? ???????????, [35] ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? [36] ?????????. ??????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????????. ??????? ?????? ????????????? ????????????????, ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????????????? ????? ???????. [37]

???????-?????????? ?????-????????? ????????????????? ??????????????????????????, ?????? ???????????????? ???????????? ??????????-???????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ??????????? ???????? ???????????. ??????? ?????????? ???? ???? ??????????? ??????????????. [13] ??????????? ????????????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ???????. ?????? ??? ???????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????????????? ?????????????. ???????????? ???????? ???? ????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? 1240?? ???????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ????????????????, 1242?? ???????? ??? ?????? ????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????????? ???????, ?????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????????????.

?????????? ?????? ????? [ ???? ]

???????? ???????? ????, ????????? ?????????, ???????? ??????????, ???????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ????????????????. ???????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????????.

????? ????????? ???????, ??????? ??????????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ????? ????? (????????? ????????????? "????????" ???? ?????????????????????). ??????????? ??? ??????????-?????????? ??? ???????? ????????. ?????????-????????????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????, ????????? ????????? 14?? ???????????? ???????????, ?????? ????????? ???? ???????????? ??????? ???????????. ??????, ???????????, ????????? ????????? ??????? ???????????????? ?????? ???????????? ??? ????????????.

?????????-????????????? ????? ????????????????, ?????????? ??????????????, ???????????? ??????? ????????????????? ?????????????. ??????????? ???? ?????????? ?????, ?????? ???? ??????????? ?????????. 1350????????? 1490 ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ??? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????????????. ?????????????, ??????? ???????? ????????, ?????? ??????? ?????????? (??????, ?? ????? ??????? ???????) ???????, [38] ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????, ?????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ???????????. 1500 ????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????. [39]

?????????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????????????????, ???? ??????? ??????????????? ???? ???????????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ????????, 1380??? ???????? ???????? ?????? ?????????-????????????? ??????????? ????? ????????. ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????. ???????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ????????.

???????? ????? ( ?? ?????? ) ???????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????????????????? ???????????, ???? ?????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ???? ?????????????. ???? ???????? "???? ???????????? ?????? ??????" ?????????? ????????????. [40] 1453?? ???????????????????? ?????????????? ????, ?????? ??????? ????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????. ???????? ?????, ??????? ??????????? ???????? 11?? ???????????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????????????. ?????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????? ????????.

????????? ???? ????? [ ???? ]

??????? ?????????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ?????

???????? ????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????, ?????? ????????? 4?? ????? ("???????????" [41] ) 1547??, ????????? ????? ???? ("?????") ?? ???????????????? ??????????????????. ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???????? (1550?? ??????????) ????????????. ???? ????? ???????? ???? ????????? ??????? (???????? ??????) ?????????????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????????????????. [42] [43]

????? ????? ????????????????????, ?????? ???????? ???????????? (??????? ???????? ?????? ????????), ?????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????, ?????????? ????????????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????????. ??????, 16?? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ??????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ????????????.

?????????????, ???????? ??????? ?????????????????, ???? ?????? ????????????????, ???????, ?????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ?????, ??????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ???????????. [44] ???????, ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????, ????????????? ???????????? ?????????????????? ????????????. [45] 1571??, ?????? ???????? ????? ??????????????? ????????, ?????????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????. [46] ???????,?????? ????? ?????? ??????, ???????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????????????. ???? ????? ????????? ????????-????????? ????? ?????????????????. ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ????????? ??????????????????? ??????? ???????????????? ???????? ??????????????. ???????, 17?? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????????.

?????????????, ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????????????

??????? ????????? ????? ??????? 1598?? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???????. ?????? 1601?03 ?????? [47] ??????????? ??????????? ??????????. 17?? ???????????? ???????????, ?????? ????????? ????, ????? ??????????????????, ?????????????????? ????????????? ????????. [48] ?????-????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????. 1612?? ?????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????????, ???????? ???????? ???? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????????????????. ???????? ???????? ????????? ??????? 1613?? ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????. ?????? ???? ??????????????????? ????????????? ???????.

17?? ???????????? ???????????? ????????? ????? ???? ??????????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????????. ?????????? ???????, ????????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ????? ????????????????? ?????? ????????? ????. 1648??, ?????????????? ????????????????? ???????-???????????????? ??????, ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????? ????????. ???????? ??????, ????? ????????????? ????, ?? ????????????????? ???????????????.1654?? ???????? ??????? ?????? ??????????????, ??????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????????. ??????? ?????? ?????????????, ??????? ????-????? ??????? (1654?1667) ?????????. ?????????, ??????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ???????????????. ????????????? (?????? ???? ???) ????? ?????????????????, ?????????????? (?????? ??????? ??????? ????) ???? ????????????????? ???????. ??????, 1670?71?? ???????? ??????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??????????????? ????????????. ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ???????.

????????? ?????????, ???????????? ????????????, ???????????? ?? ?????????? ??????? ???? ?????????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????. ??? ????????????, ????????????, ???????????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????????????????????? ????????????. ???? ??????????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????????. 17?? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????, ?????? ?????????, ????? ????????, ??????? ??????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ????????????????. 1648??, ?????????????, ?? ????????????????? ???????? ?????? ?????? , ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????????.

?????? ?????? [ ???? ]

????????? ???????: ???????? ??????
??? ???????, ????????? ???????? ???????

1721??, ??? ????????? ????, ????? ??? ????????????, ?????????? ??? ??????????. 1682????????? 1725 ??? ??????? ???????, ?????? ???????? ?????? ????????? ?????????????. ??????, ?????? ???????, ????????? (??????????????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ??? ???????????), [49] ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ????????????????. ????????? ??????????? ???? ????? ??????????????, ???? ???????? ????????? ?????????????????. [50] ???????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????? ???????????????? ??????????. ??? ????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?? ??????????????. ????????? ????? ????????????????? ????????? ??????????????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????.

1741?62 ???, ??????? ????????? ????? ???????????? ???????????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? (1756?63). ???? ?????????????????, ????? ????????? ?????????????, ?????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????????. ?????????????, ???????????? ????????? ????, ?????????????? ????????? ?????????????, ????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????.

1762?96 ??? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? ????????? ??????????? ????? ??????????. ???? ?????-????????? ??????????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???????????, ??????? ???????????? ????, ???? ??????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????????. ????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??? ???????. ???????? ??????????????? ????-??????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ????????????? ????? ???? ????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????????. 19?? ???????????? ???????????, ???????????????????? ??????????? ?????????, ?????????????????????? ??? ???????????? ???????????????. ??????? ?????????????? (1801?25), 1809??, ???????? ????????????????? ???????????? ?????????????, 1812??, ????????????????????? ??????????????? ????????????? ??, ??? ?????????????? ??????????. ??????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ?????????????? ???????????????, ????????????????? ??? (??????? ????) ???? ?????????????? ???????????? ????????.

1803?06 ??? ???????? ???? ????? ????????????? ?????????????????. ??????????????? ??????????????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????????. 1820?? ??? ???? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????????? ?????? ????????????????????.

1866?? ?????? ????????, ???? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????????.

??????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ?????, ????????????? ??????????????????? ?????????. 1812?? ???? ????????????? ????????????? ???????? ????, ??????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????????? ??????????. ??? ?????? ????????????? 95%??? ??? ????????. [51] ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ???? ????????? ?????????????? ?????????, ????? ??????????? ?????? ?????, ????????????? ????? ??????????????? ???????????????, ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????????????? ?????????? ????????. ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????????. ????????? ????????????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???????????.

??????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????. 1825?? ???????????, ???????????, ???????? ??????????? ????? ???? ???????? ????????????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????????. ??????? ?????????? (1825?55) ??????? ????????? ????????, ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ????? ??????????, ???????????? ?????????. 1847??????, 1851???????????? ????? ????????? ????? ?????? ????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ???? ???????. [52]

?????????? ???? ????????? ???? ???????? ???????????? (1855?81) ???????? ??? ?????????? ??????????????. ???????? 1861?? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????????????????????. ?????? ????? ?????????? ????????????????????? ???????????????, ???? ????????????? ???????? ??????????. ???? ????? ???? ??????? 1877?78 ????-????????? ??????????? ????, ??????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????????? ???????????.

19?? ???????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ????????? ??????? ??????. 1881?? ???????? ???????????? ????????????????? ??????????????. ????? ????? ???????? ???????????? (1894?94) ???????????? ??????? ?????????????, ????????? ???????????? ????????. ????? ?????? ???????? ???????? ???????? (1894?1917) 1905?? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ??????????? ?????????. ???????????????? ??????????? ???????? ????-?????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????. ?????????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?? ????????????????. ????????? ?????????????. ?????, ????????? ???????? ?????????? , ???????????????? ?????????? , ??????? ???????? ???????????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????? (?????? ???????? ????) ????? ????? ???????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????????????????????. 20?? ???????????? ???????????, ?????????? ???????? ????????????????? ?????????, ??????????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????. 1906?????? 1914?????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????????????? ??????????????? ???????. [53]

1914?? ????????? ??????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????????-??????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????, ????? ??????? ??? ????????????? ????????????. ???? ?????????? ????? ??????????????? ????????????????????????? ????????, ??????? ????????????? ????????????????????. 1916?? ???? ??????????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ?????? ?????????-??????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ????????????????????. ?????????????, ?????? ????????, ???? ?????????, ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ??????????????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????. ??????? ???????????? 1917?? ??? ????????? ????? ?????? ???????????? ????? ????????????.

???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????????. ???? ?????? ??????????, ?????? ????? ??????????? ????????????????????, ??????? ??????????????????. ??????????, ????????, ??????? ?????????? ??????????????? ???????????????????? ???????? ????????????? ????????????????. ???????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????????. ???? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????????? ????????????????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????. ?????? ??????? ??????????. ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????? ????????????? ?????????????? ?????? ?????? ?????????????????. ?????????, ?????????? ?????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ?????, ???????? ????????? ??????????????????, ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????????.

??????? ????? [ ???? ]

????????? ???????: ??????? ????????
???? ??????? ????????? ????????:????????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ???????.

???????? ????????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ?????? ???????????????, ?????????????? ????? ??????? ????????????????? ?????? ???? ????? ??????????. ????????-?????????? ????????? ?????, ?????, ??????? ??????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ???? ????????, ?????, ???????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????. ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????, ??? ??????? ??? ????? ??????????? ??????????. ??????? ??? ??????????????????. ???????????, ?????????????????, ?????? ????????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??? ????????????? ??????????. ??? ???????????? ?????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?? ?????????????. ?????? ?????? ????????, ?????? ?????????????, ??????????????? ??????? ?????????????. ???????????????? ?????? ????????????. [54] ??????, 1921?? ?????????? ?????????? 5 ????????? ???? ????????. [55]

???????? 30, 1922??, ???? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ???????? (???? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?? ??????????????), ????????, ???????? ??????? ????????????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????. ??????? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ?????????? 15 ?????????????, ???? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????. ??????, ??? ??????? ???????????? ????? ???????????? ????????????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????????????. ????? 69-??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????????.

1924?? ???????? ???????? ?????????, ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???????????????. ?????????????, ??????????? ????????? ????????????????? ??????????????? ????? ???????? , ??????? ??????????? ????????????? ???? ??????????? ???????????????, ??????????? ????????????? ???????????????? ????????. 1929??, ????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????, ?????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????????? ??????????????????. ?????? ?????????? ??? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????????????????. ?????? ????????????????????? , ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????. 1937?38 ?????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????, ????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????????. [56]

???????????????? ?????????????

?????????? ???????????????? ????, ????????? ?????????? ??????????? , ???????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????????????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????????? ???????????????. ??????? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????????, ????????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ???????????????? ???????????????. [57] ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????????. ?????? ????????? ??????????, ??????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????????????. [57] ???????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? 1932?33 ?????????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????. [58] ?????????????, ????? ??????????????, ??????? ?????????, ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ????????????????, ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????.

??????? ????????? ???? , ?????????, ??????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????????? ????????? ????? ????? ???????????????????, ????????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????????? ???? ???????????. ??????, ??????? ???????????? ???? ???? ???????????? ???????????. ??????? ??????? ?????? , ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????. 1938?39 ?????? ???????-?????????? ????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????, ??????? ???????????? ??????? ???????? ????????.

?????? 1939??, ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????????????????, ?????????? ?????????? ???? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????, ??????? ????????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????? ?????? ???????. ???????, ??? ??????????????????? ???? ??????????????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ???? ???????????????????? ??????????? ????????????????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????? ???????-????????????? ????????? ???????????????????. ???????? ??????????? ????????????, ??????? ???????, ???????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????????? ????, ??????? ???????? ???? ?????????? ????????????????????, ??????????? ???? ??????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????????? ????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????????????? ?????? ??????.

???? 22, 1941??, ???? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????, ???? ???????????? ????? ?????????, ??????? ???????????? ???????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????. [59] ??? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ????? ???????. ???????? ??????? ??????????? ??????????????? ??????????? ????????????????, ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ????????? ???????????. ?????????, 1942?43 ??????????????? ???????? ?????????????? ???????? , [60] 1943 ????????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ???????????. ???????????? ???????????? ???????????? ??????? ????????????. ????????, ???????? 1941?44??? ????????, ?????????? ????????, ???????????????????. ??????????? ???????????, ??? ????????? ???? ???????????, ???????? ????????????. [61] ?????????? ????????????? ??????, ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ????? ???????? ??????????? ??????, ??????? ??????, ?????????? 1944-45??? ????????????? ?????? ???????, ?? 1945?? ?????????? ??????????. ?????? 1945?? ??????? ???????, ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ???????????????? ?????????? ??????????, ???????????????? ??? ????????? ?????????? ???????????? ???????.

???????? ??????????? 1941?45 ?????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????????? ???? ???? ???????????????????. ???? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????, 10.6 ????????? ??????????????, 15.9 ????????? ???????? ??????????????. [62] ??? ???????? ??????????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????????. ??????? ???????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????????. [63] ??????? ?????????????, ??????????????? ????? ????????????????. [64] ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ???????.

?????????? ????, ???????? , ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????? ???????. ??????????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????????? ??????????? ????????? ????????????????. ?????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????????, ?????? ????????????? ??????????? ???????. ???? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ????????? ?? ??????????, ??? ??????????????? ?????????? ?????????. ????????????? ????????? ??????????????, ??????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????????. ???????? ??????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???????? , ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????????. ?????????????????? ??????? ???????, ???? ?????? ???????????, ??????? ??????????????. [65]

?????????? ?????????????????, ?????????? ????????????????? ????, ????? ??????? ?????????? ???????? , ?????????? ????????? ??????????????, ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ????????????????. ????????? ??? ????????? ?????????????. ?? ????????????? ????????????????, ???????????????????????? (????????? ???? ??????????????). [66] ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????, ?????? ???????? ?????? ?? ??????????????. ???????, ???????????? ?????? ????????????? ????????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????????? ???????????.

??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ???????? ???? .

1957??, ??????? ???????? ?????? ????? ?????????????? ?????????? 1? ??????? ????? ???????? ??????? ???????????. ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????? 12, 1961 ?????, ?????????? 1 ???????????? ?????? ?????????, ?????????? ???????? ????? ??????????.

1964?? ?????????? ??????? ?????????, ???????? ???????? ????? ????? ??????????. ????????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????. 1970??? ??????? ???? 1980???, ??????? ????? ?? ????????????????. ????????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????????????, ?????? ????????? ???????????. ??????? ??????????????? ??????????? ???????????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????????, ?????????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ?????, 1965?? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????????.

1979??, ??????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ????, ????? ????????? ?????????????????? ??????? ?????? ????????????????? ???????? . ?????? ??????????????? ??????? ????????????????, ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????. ????????, ??????? ????????? (???????? ?????????), ????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ????? ??????? 1989?? ??????? ??????? ????????????????????? ?????????????.

1985?????????, ??????? ?????????? ???????? ???????????????? ????????? ????????? , ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ??????????? , ???????????? (??????????) ??????? ????????????? (??????????????) ???? ????????? ???????????????????. ????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ???????????? ????????????, ??????????? ?????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????. ?????????????, ???????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????. 1991???? ????, ??????? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????????. [67] ???????, ???? ??????? ?????????, ?????????? ???????? ?????? ?????????????????, ????? ?????????? ?????????????????, ????? ??????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????????. [68]

1991?? ????, ????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????. ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????????????????? ??????? ??????? ????????????. ?????? 17??, ???? ???????????????? ??????????. ????? ??????????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????. ?????? 1991??, ??????????????? ??????, ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????????????? ??????, ??????? ???????????? ?????????, ????????????? ??????? ????????????? ????????????? ?????????. ???????? ??????????????? ????? ???????? 25, 1991?? ??????? ???????? 15 ?????????? ????????.

?????? ???????? [ ???? ]

??????????????????????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????

???? ???????????? ?????????, ???? 1991?? ???????? ?????????? ?????????, ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ??????????????????????. ??????? ???????????? ???????? ??????, ???? ????????? ???????????????? ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????????????? ????????????????. [69] ???????? ?????? ???????????????, ??????? ???? ??????????????? ??????????????????, ????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????????. [70] ??? ?????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ????????? ?????????. ??????, 1990?95 ??????????????, ????? ????????? ?????????????? , ?????????? ????????????????? 50% ???????? ?????????. [69] [71]

??????????????????, ???? ????????????? ???????????, ??????? ??????????????????, ??? ?????????? ???????????? ????? ?????????? ????????????. ?? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ????? ??????????? ?????????. [72] ??????????? ?????????????????? ????????????, ???? ??????? ????????????. ??????? ????? ???????????, ?????? ????? ???????????. [ ?????? ???? ] ??????? ??????? ????????? 1.5%??? ?????? ????? ??????, 1993?? ?????????????? 39-49%??? ??????. ?????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????. [73] 1990????? ???????? ???? ??????? ??????????, ?????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ????? ??????????. [74]

1990?????, ?? ?????????? ????????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ???????????? ????????. 1990????? ??????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????, ???????????????, ???? ????????????????????? ?????????? ???? ??????????. ?????????????????, ??????????????????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????????????. ?????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ????? ????????????????. ?????? ?????????????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???????????.

??????? ???????????? ?????????????, ????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????, ????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ???? ??????????????. [75] ???? ?????????? ??????????? ??????? 1998?? ???? ????????? ?????????. [76] ?????? ????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ????????????????. [69]

???????? 31, 1999?? ?????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????? ???????????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????. 2000?? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ????????. ?? ???????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????????, ???????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????????. ??????????? ????, ??????? ??????? ??????? ???????????? ??????, ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????? ??????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ???????? ?????????. ???? ????? ????????? ????????????????, ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????????. [77] ?????????? ??????????????????? ??????????????? ?? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ?? ?????????????????????, [78] ?????????? ???????????????? ????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????????. [79]

?????? 2, 2008 ?????, ???????? ?????????? ???? ????????????? ?????? ???????????????, ???????? ???????? ?????????????????. 2012 ?????????? ??????????????, ?????? ????????????????, ????????? ???????? ?????????????????.

??????? [ ???? ]

?????? ?????????????? ??? ??? ???? ?????????? ???????? ???????????, ????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ??? ?????????? , ???-???????? ?????? ???????? ?????. ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ?? ?????, ?????????????? ?????????? ?????. ????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ???????:

  • ???????????,
  • ???????????,
  • ????.

??? ???????? ?????? ????????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ???????????? ????? ?????? ????????????. ?????? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????, ???????????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ?????? ????????. ?????? ?????????????? ???????, ????? ???? ???????????, ???????????, ?????? ??????????? ????? ??????? ?????????. ????????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ????????????????? ???? ????????????. ??????? ???????? "????"???? ??????? ????. ??????????? ???? ??????????, ?????? ???????? ????? , ???????????? ????? , ???????? ??????????? ???????????? ????? , ???????? ??????? ????? ????????.

??????????? ??? ???????????????? [ ???? ]

?????? ???? ???????? ????? ?????? ???? 85 ???????????????? ????????????? ????????????. ???

??????????? [ ???? ]

  1. ↑ ОБ ИТОГАХ ВСЕРОССИЙСКОЙ ПЕРЕПИСИ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ 2010 ГОДА ( Results of the Russian 2010 census ) ????????????? 2012-01-18 at the ??????? ????????? - http://www.perepis-2010.ru/ ????????????? 2014-02-21 at the ??????? ?????????
  2. ↑ "The Russian federation: general characteristics" . Federal State Statistics Service . Archived from the original on 21 ???????? 2003 . ????????????? ???? 5 April 2008 . {{ cite web }} : Unknown parameter |= ignored ( help )
  3. ↑ Демография в январе-мае 2012г. ????????????? 2012-09-26 at the ??????? ????????? (Official population data estimates as of 1 August 2012) (?????? ????????)
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 "Russia" . International Monetary Fund . ????????????? ???? 20 April 2012 .
  5. ↑ "Distribution of family income ? Gini index" . The World Factbook . CIA. Archived from the original on 13 ???? 2007 . ????????????? ???? 13 January 2011 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  6. ↑ "2011 Human development Report" (PDF) . ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? . pp. 148?151 . ????????????? ???? 5 November 2011 .
  7. ↑ "Russia" . Encyclopædia Britannica . ????????????? ???? 31 January 2008 .
  8. ↑ Library of Congress. "Topography and drainage" . ????????????? ???? 26 December 2007 .
  9. ↑ "Commission of the Russian Federation for UNESCO: Panorama of Russia" . Unesco.ru . ????????????? ???? 29 October 2010 .
  10. ↑ International Energy Agency ? Oil Market Report 18 January 2012 . Retrieved 20 February 2012.
  11. ↑ Country Comparison :: Natural gas ? production ????????????? 2012-09-21 at the ??????? ????????? . CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
  12. ↑ "Russia" . Encyclopædia Britannica . ????????????? ???? 31 January 2008 .
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Excerpted from Glenn E. Curtis (ed.) (1998). "Russia: A Country Study: Kievan Rus' and Mongol Periods" . Washington, DC: Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 27 ?????????? 2007 . ????????????? ???? 20 July 2007 . {{ cite web }} : |last= has generic name ( help ) ; Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  14. ↑ The Mongol empire: its rise and legacy , By Michael Prawdin , Gerard Chaliand, (2005) page 512-550
  15. ↑ Rein Taagepera (1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" . International Studies Quarterly 41 (3): 475?504. doi : 10.1111/0020-8833.00053 . https://archive.org/details/sim_international-studies-quarterly_1997-09_41_3/page/475 .  
  16. ↑ Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, " East-West Orientation of Historical Empires ????????????? 2007-02-22 at the ??????? ????????? ", Journal of World-Systems Research Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219?229 (2006).
  17. ↑ Jonathan R. Adelman; Cristann Lea Gibson (1 July 1989). Contemporary Soviet Military Affairs: The Legacy of World War II . Unwin Hyman. p. 4. ??????????? ?????????? ???   978-0-04-445031-3 . ????????????? ???? 15 June 2012 .
  18. ↑ Weinberg, G.L. (1995). A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II . Cambridge University Press. p.  264 . ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-521-55879-4 .
  19. ↑ Rozhnov, Konstantin, Who won World War II? . BBC.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Belinskij A, Harke, H (1999). "The 'Princess' of Ipatovo" . Archeology 52 (2) ??? ????????? ??????? 10 ???? 2008 ?????. ?????????????. . https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043326/http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html . ??????? ????: 26 December 2007 .  
  21. ↑ Drews, Robert (2004). Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe . New York: Routledge. p. 50. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-415-32624-9 .
  22. ↑ Koryakova, L. "Sintashta-Arkaim Culture" . The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN). Archived from the original on 28 ???????? 2019 . ????????????? ???? 20 July 2007 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  23. ↑ "1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" " . Transcript . ????????????? ???? 26 December 2007 .
  24. ↑ Jacobson, E. (1995). The Art of the Scythians: The Interpenetration of Cultures at the Edge of the Hellenic World . Brill. p. 38. ??????????? ?????????? ???   90-04-09856-9 .
  25. ↑ Tsetskhladze, G.R. (1998). The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology . F. Steiner. p. 48. ??????????? ?????????? ???   3-515-07302-7 .
  26. ↑ Turchin, P. (2003). Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall . Princeton University Press. pp. 185?186. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-691-11669-5 .
  27. ↑ Christian, D. (1998). A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia . Blackwell Publishing. pp. 286?288. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-631-20814-3 .
  28. ↑ For a discussion of the origins of Slavs, see Barford, P.M. (2001). The Early Slavs . Cornell University Press. pp. 15?16. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-8014-3977-9 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )
  29. ↑ Christian, D. (1998). A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia . Blackwell Publishing. pp. 6?7.
  30. ↑ Obolensky, D. (1994). Byzantium and the Slavs . St Vladimir's Seminary Press. p.  42 . ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-88141-008-X .
  31. ↑ Thompson, J.W.; Johnson, E.N. (1937). An Introduction to Medieval Europe, 300?1500 . W. W. Norton & Co. p. 268. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-415-34699-1 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )
  32. ↑ "Ukraine: Security Assistance" . U.S. Department of State . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 .
  33. ↑ Klyuchevsky, V. (1987). The course of the Russian history . Vol. 1. Mysl?. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-244-00072-1 .
  34. ↑ Hamm, M.F. (1995). Kiev: A Portrait, 1800?1917 . Princeton University Press. ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-691-02585-1 .
  35. ↑ "The Destruction of Kiev" . Tspace.library.utoronto.ca . ????????????? ???? 19 January 2011 .
  36. ↑ "History of Russia from Early Slavs history and Kievan Rus to Romanovs dynasty" . Parallelsixty.com. Archived from the original on 1 ???????? 2018 . ????????????? ???? 27 April 2010 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  37. ↑ Рыбаков, Б. А. (1948). Ремесло Древней Руси . pp. 525?533, 780?781.
  38. ↑ The history of banya and sauna ????????????? 2012-11-30 at Archive.today (?????? ????????)
  39. ↑ " Black Death ". Joseph Patrick Byrne (2004). p. 62. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-313-32492-1
  40. ↑ May, T. "Khanate of the Golden Horde" . Archived from the original on 7 ???? 2008 . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archivedate= ( help )
  41. ↑ Frank D. McConnell. Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature. ??????????? ????????????? ????????? , 1979. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-19-502572-5 ; p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan Groznyi , "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome," is precisely a man who has become a legend"
  42. ↑ Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times . Vol. 6. AST. pp. 562?604. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-17-002142-9 .
  43. ↑ Skrynnikov, R. (1981). Ivan the Terrible . Academic Intl Pr. p.  219 . ??????????? ?????????? ???   0-87569-039-4 .
  44. ↑ Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times . Vol. 6. AST. pp. 751?908. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-17-002142-9 .
  45. ↑ The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves PDF (355 KB) . Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
  46. ↑ Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times . Vol. 6. AST. pp. 751?809. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-17-002142-9 .
  47. ↑ Borisenkov E, Pasetski V. The thousand-year annals of the extreme meteorological phenomena . p. 190. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-244-00212-0 .
  48. ↑ Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times . Vol. 7. AST. pp. 461?568. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-17-002142-9 .
  49. ↑ Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times . Vol. 9, ch.1. AST. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-17-002142-9 . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 .
  50. ↑ Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times . Vol. 15, ch.1. AST.
  51. ↑ "Ruling the Empire" . Library of Congress . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 .
  52. ↑ Geoffrey A. Hosking (2001). " Russia and the Russians: a history ". Harvard University Press. p. 9. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-674-00473-6
  53. ↑ N. M. Dronin, E. G. Bellinger (2005). " Climate dependence and food problems in Russia, 1900?1990: the interaction of climate and agricultural policy and their effect on food problems ". Central European University Press. p. 38. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 963-7326-10-3
  54. ↑ Transactions of the American Philosophical Society . James E. Hassell (1991), p. 3. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-87169-817-X
  55. ↑ Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921 ????????????? 2012-12-19 at the ??????? ????????? , International Committee of the Red Cross
  56. ↑ Abbott Gleason (2009). A Companion to Russian History . Wiley-Blackwell. p. 373. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 1-4051-3560-3
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Getty, Rittersporn, Zemskov. Victims of the Soviet Penal System in the Pre-War Years: A First Approach on the Basis of Archival Evidence. The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 4 (Oct. 1993), pp. 1017?49.
  58. ↑ R.W. Davies , S.G. Wheatcroft (2004). The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931?33 , pp. 401.
  59. ↑ "World War II" . Encyclopædia Britannica . ????????????? ???? 9 March 2008 .
  60. ↑ "The Allies' first decisive successes: Stalingrad and the German retreat, summer 1942 ? February 1943" . Encyclopædia Britannica . ????????????? ???? 12 March 2008 .
  61. ↑ The Legacy of the Siege of Leningrad, 1941?1995 . Cambridge University Press.
  62. ↑ Erlikman, V. (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik . Moskva: Russkai?a? panorama. ??????????? ?????????? ???   5-93165-107-1 . Note: Estimates for Soviet World War II casualties vary between sources.
  63. ↑ Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). " Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union ". Harvard University Press. p. 242. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-674-02178-9
  64. ↑ "Reconstruction and Cold War" . Library of Congress . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 .
  65. ↑ Foreign trade from A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former) . Library of Congress Country Studies project.
  66. ↑ "Great Escapes from the Gulag" . TIME . 5 June 1978 ??? ????????? ??????? 26 ???? 2009 ?????. ?????????????. . https://web.archive.org/web/20090626002132/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916205-2,00.html . ??????? ????: 1 August 2008 .  
  67. ↑ "1990 CIA World Factbook" . ?????? ????? ????? . Archived from the original on 27 April 2011 . ????????????? ???? 9 March 2008 .
  68. ↑ "Russia Unforeseen Results of Reform" . The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook . ????????????? ???? 10 March 2008 .
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 "Russian Federation" (PDF) . Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) . ????????????? ???? 24 February 2008 .
  70. ↑ Sciolino, E. (21 December 1993). "U.S. is abandoning 'shock therapy' for the Russians" . The New York Times . http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CEED91F39F932A15751C1A965958260 . ??????? ????: 20 January 2008 .  
  71. ↑ "Russia: Economic Conditions in Mid-1996" . Library of Congress . ????????????? ???? 4 March 2011 .
  72. ↑ "Russia: Clawing Its Way Back to Life (int'l edition)" . BusinessWeek . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 .
  73. ↑ Branko Milanovic (1998). Income, Inequality, and Poverty During the Transformation from Planned to Market Economy . The World Bank. pp. 186?189.
  74. ↑ Jason Bush (19 October 2006). "What's Behind Russia's Crime Wave?" . BusinessWeek Journal . http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/oct2006/gb20061019_110749_page_2.htm .  
  75. ↑ "Russia pays off USSR's entire debt, sets to become crediting country" . Pravda.ru . ????????????? ???? 27 December 2007 .
  76. ↑ Aslund A. "Russia's Capitalist Revolution" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 ?????? 2016 . ????????????? ???? 28 March 2008 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  77. ↑ The World Factbook. "CIA" . Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 3 ???? 2015 . ????????????? ???? 26 December 2007 . {{ cite web }} : Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
  78. ↑ Treisman, D. "Is Russia's Experiment with Democracy Over?" . UCLA International Institute . ????????????? ???? 31 December 2007 .
  79. ↑ Stone, N (4 December 2007). "No wonder they like Putin" . The Times (UK) . http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/guest_contributors/article2994651.ece . ??????? ????: 31 December 2007 .  

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