?????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ????????????????????? ????????? ??? ?????? ??????- ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????????. ??? ????? ???? ???????? ??? ?????????? ???? ?????? (Penam) ??????? ??????????? ??? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????????. ???? ????????????? ????????? R-C ₉ H ₁₁ N ₂ O ₄ S ?????. ????? R ?????????? ?????? ?????????????.

?????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ??????????????? ???????????????? ??? ???????????? ???????? ???????????. ??? ????????????? 1928 ??? ???????????. ???????, ??? ???????????? ??? ?????????? ??????????????? ????? ????? ??????????, ??????????????? ????????????? ???????? ????????? ?????? (Howard Walter Florey) ???????????.

???????, ??????????????? ???????????? ????????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????????????????. ??? ??????? ????? ???????? 1875 ??? ??????????????. ??????? ???? ???????? (John Tyndall) ??????? ??? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ???????????? (Royal Society) ???????????????. ????????? ???????????? ??????? 1897 ??? ??????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ??? ??????? ??????????????. ????? ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ???? ??????????????????.

??? ?????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? ???????????? ,
Penicillin antibiotics
???????? ???????? ?????.

• Model of Structure of Penicillin, by Dorothy Hodgkin et al., Museum of the History of Science, Oxford
• ?????????? The Discovery of Penicillin, A government produced film about the discovery of Penicillin by Sir Alexander Fleming, and the continuing development of its use as an antibiotic by Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain .
• Penicillin at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
• Penicillin Released to Civilians Will Cost $35 Per Patient Popular Science , August 1944, article at bottom of page