??????? ??????????????? ?????????????????? ???????.
???????? (Coal)
??????
?????????? ???????????
??????? ????????? ?????
?????????
?????. ??? ????????????? ???? ????????????
???????????
?????? ??????? ???????????? ??????? ???????????? ????????. ????????????
???
???????
??????????????????
?? ????????
???????
??????? ?? ??? ?????? ????????????? ??????????????.
?????? ????????????
?????????? ???????? ??? ?????????? ?????????????.
???????? ??? ?????? ???? ??????? ?????????????. ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ??? ??????? ???????????????? ????????????? ???? ????????????????? ??????????? ???????????????. ?????? ????, ???? ??????? ????????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????. ???????? ???????????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????????????. ?????????????????? ??????? ??????? '???????? ????' ?????????? ???????? ????????????????.
[1]
1983 ???????? ??? ???????? ???????????? ???? ???????? ??????????.
[2]
???????? ??????
[
????
]
???????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????????.
???????? ???????????
, ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?????????????? ???????????????????????. 1983 ???????? ?????? ???????? ?????????????????
????
???????????? ??????? ????????????. ?????? 7,695 ????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????? 49.5% ?????? 3,250 ????????? ??????
????????
???????? ???????????????. ??????????? ?????????
?????? ?????????
(993 ????????? ??????),
???????
(589 ????????? ??????),
???????? ????????
(576 ????????? ??????),
???????????
(416 ????????? ??????) ???? ??????? ??????????????.
[3]
??????? ???????? ??????????????
???????????
??????????. 2010 ??? ??????? 328 ????????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ???????. ??? ??? ???????? ???????????? 27.1 ?????????? ?????. ?????? ????????
???????????
316 ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????????????????? ???? ???????? ???? ??? ???????? ???????????? 26.1 ?????????? ?????.
[4]
?????????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????? 207 ????????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??????
???????
?????????????? (??? ?????? 17.5%)
????
195 ????????? ??????(??? ?????? 16.6%) ??????????????
??????????
126 ????????? ?????? (10.7%) ?????????????? ????????? ??????????.
[5]
???????
[
????
]
???????????? ?????? ???????????? ???????????????
????????????????????????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????????????????? ??????????. ????????? ??????? ??????????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????. ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ???????. ???????? ????????????????? ????????? ??????????. ???????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ??? ?????????????? ????????. ???? ????????? ????????? ????????? ???? ??????????? ??????? ????????????????. ???????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????. ??????? ???????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????????????.
[6]
[7]
[8]
???????????? ??????
[
????
]
???? ????????????
??????? ??????????? ?????????? ????? ??????????? ??????????????????
???????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????????.?????????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ???????? ?????????????
- ?????? ????????.
- ??????? ????????
.
- ?????????? ????????
- ????????
???????????? ????????? ?????????? ???????
???????? ???????? ???????
[
????
]
2008??? ????? ?????????
???????????????
[9]
??????????????????? ???????? ??????? (????????? ?????? (?????????????))
[10]
????
|
???????????? &
???????????
|
???????? ??????? ????????
|
??????????
|
???????
|
????? ??? ????????? ??????????
|
?????? ?????????
|
108,501
|
98,618
|
30,176
|
237,295
|
22.6
|
???????
|
49,088
|
97,472
|
10,450
|
157,010
|
14.4
|
????
|
62,200
|
33,700
|
18,600
|
114,500
|
12.6
|
???????????
|
37,100
|
2,100
|
37,200
|
76,400
|
8.9
|
???????
|
56,100
|
0
|
4,500
|
60,600
|
7.0
|
???????
|
99
|
0
|
40,600
|
40,699
|
4.7
|
???????
|
15,351
|
16,577
|
1,945
|
33,873
|
3.9
|
???????????
|
21,500
|
0
|
12,100
|
33,600
|
3.9
|
????????????????
|
30,156
|
0
|
0
|
30,156
|
3.5
|
????????
|
9
|
361
|
13,400
|
13,770
|
1.6
|
?????????
|
6,366
|
380
|
0
|
6,746
|
0.8
|
????
|
3,474
|
872
|
2,236
|
6,528
|
0.8
|
???????
|
4,338
|
0
|
1,371
|
5,709
|
0.7
|
???????????
|
1,520
|
2,904
|
1,105
|
5,529
|
0.6
|
????????
|
0
|
4,559
|
0
|
4,559
|
0.5
|
??????? ????
|
0
|
0
|
3,020
|
3,020
|
0.4
|
???????? ???????????
|
484
|
0
|
2,369
|
2,853
|
0.3
|
?????????
|
1,170
|
0
|
1,350
|
2,520
|
0.3
|
?????????
|
2
|
190
|
2,174
|
2,366
|
0.3
|
????????????
|
0
|
166
|
1,904
|
2,070
|
0.3
|
????????
|
529
|
0
|
1,814
|
2,343
|
0.3
|
?????????????
|
47
|
0
|
1,853
|
1,900
|
0.2
|
???????
|
13
|
439
|
1,208
|
1,660
|
0.2
|
??????????
|
0
|
0
|
1,239
|
1,239
|
0.1
|
??????????
|
860
|
300
|
51
|
1,211
|
0.1
|
?????
|
1,203
|
0
|
0
|
1,203
|
0.1
|
???? ????????
|
192
|
0
|
908
|
1,100
|
0.1
|
??????????????
|
0
|
0
|
812
|
812
|
0.1
|
?????????
|
0
|
0
|
794
|
794
|
0.1
|
?? ??????
|
300
|
300
|
0
|
600
|
0.1
|
????????????
|
33
|
205
|
333-7,000
|
571?15,000
[11]
|
0.1
|
???????????
|
200
|
300
|
30
|
530
|
0.1
|
??????
|
4
|
0
|
499
|
503
|
0.1
|
??????????
|
502
|
0
|
0
|
502
|
0.1
|
???????????
|
0
|
0
|
500
|
500
|
0.1
|
???? ???????
|
3,421
|
1,346
|
846
|
5,613
|
0.7
|
????? ??? ???????
|
404,762
|
260,789
|
195,387
|
860,938
|
100
|
???????? ???????? ????????????????
[
????
]
?????
????????? ?????
?????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ???????? ??????????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????????????????. ?????????????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ????????? ???????????. ????????? 100 ????????? ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ??????? ????????????????. ??????????????, ???????? ???????????? ????????? ?????????????. ??????????? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????? ???????????????????.
???? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???????? (????????? ??????)
[3]
????
|
2003
|
2004
|
2005
|
2006
|
2007
|
2008
|
2009
|
2010
|
2011
|
?????
|
????????? ????? (????????)
|
????
|
1834.9
|
2122.6
|
2349.5
|
2528.6
|
2691.6
|
2802.0
|
2973.0
|
3235.0
|
3520.0
|
49.5%
|
35
|
?????? ?????????
|
972.3
|
1008.9
|
1026.5
|
1054.8
|
1040.2
|
1063.0
|
975.2
|
983.7
|
992.8
|
14.1%
|
239
|
???????
|
375.4
|
407.7
|
428.4
|
449.2
|
478.4
|
515.9
|
556.0
|
573.8
|
588.5
|
5.6%
|
103
|
???????? ????????
|
637.2
|
627.6
|
607.4
|
595.1
|
592.3
|
563.6
|
538.4
|
535.7
|
576.1
|
4.2%
|
97
|
???????????
|
350.4
|
364.3
|
375.4
|
382.2
|
392.7
|
399.2
|
413.2
|
424.0
|
415.5
|
5.8%
|
184
|
???????
|
276.7
|
281.7
|
298.3
|
309.9
|
313.5
|
328.6
|
301.3
|
321.6
|
333.5
|
4.0%
|
471
|
???????????
|
114.3
|
132.4
|
152.7
|
193.8
|
216.9
|
240.2
|
256.2
|
275.2
|
324.9
|
5.1%
|
17
|
????????????????
|
237.9
|
243.4
|
244.4
|
244.8
|
247.7
|
252.6
|
250.6
|
254.3
|
255.1
|
3.6%
|
118
|
???????
|
204.9
|
207.8
|
202.8
|
197.1
|
201.9
|
192.4
|
183.7
|
182.3
|
188.6
|
1.1%
|
216
|
???????
|
163.8
|
162.4
|
159.5
|
156.1
|
145.9
|
144.0
|
135.2
|
133.2
|
139.2
|
1.4%
|
41
|
???????????
|
84.9
|
86.9
|
86.6
|
96.2
|
97.8
|
111.1
|
100.9
|
110.9
|
115.9
|
1.5%
|
290
|
??? ???????
|
5,301.3
|
5,716.0
|
6,035.3
|
6,342.0
|
6,573.3
|
6,795.0
|
6,880.8
|
7,254.6
|
7,695.4
|
100%
|
112
|
???????? ???????? ?????????????
[
????
]
??????????? ????????? ?????? ??? ???????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ????????????????.
??????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ??????? (?????????
???????? ??????
)
[12]
????
|
2008
|
2009
|
2010
|
2011
|
?????
|
????
|
2,966
|
3,188
|
3,695
|
4,053
|
50.7%
|
?????? ?????????
|
1,121
|
997
|
1,048
|
1,003
|
12.5%
|
???????
|
641
|
705
|
722
|
788
|
9.9%
|
???????
|
250
|
204
|
256
|
262
|
3.3%
|
???????
|
268
|
248
|
256
|
256
|
3.3%
|
????????????????
|
215
|
204
|
206
|
210
|
2.6%
|
???????
|
204
|
181
|
206
|
202
|
2.5%
|
???????
|
149
|
151
|
149
|
162
|
2.0%
|
??? ???????
|
7,327
|
7,318
|
7,994
|
??????????
|
100%
|
???????? ???????? ????????????????
[
????
]
????????? 10 ????????? ?????????? ???????? ????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ????????????????????. ???? ???????????????? ??????????????
???????????
(328.1 ????????? ??????),
???????????
(316.2) ???????
???????
(100.2) ?????????? ???????? ???????? ???????????.
??????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???????? (????????? ???????? ??????)
[4]
[13]
[14]
????
|
2003
|
2004
|
2005
|
2006
|
2007
|
2008
|
2009
|
2010
|
?????
|
???????????
|
238.1
|
247.6
|
255.0
|
255.0
|
268.5
|
278.0
|
288.5
|
328.1
|
27.1%
|
???????????
|
107.8
|
131.4
|
142.0
|
192.2
|
221.9
|
228.2
|
261.4
|
316.2
|
26.1%
|
???????
|
41.0
|
55.7
|
98.6
|
103.4
|
112.2
|
115.4
|
130.9
|
122.1
|
10.1%
|
?????? ?????????
|
43.0
|
48.0
|
51.7
|
51.2
|
60.6
|
83.5
|
60.4
|
83.2
|
6.9%
|
????????????????
|
78.7
|
74.9
|
78.8
|
75.8
|
72.6
|
68.2
|
73.8
|
76.7
|
6.3%
|
?????????
|
50.4
|
56.4
|
59.2
|
68.3
|
74.5
|
74.7
|
75.7
|
76.4
|
6.3%
|
????
|
27.7
|
28.8
|
31.2
|
31.2
|
33.4
|
36.5
|
31.9
|
36.9
|
3.0%
|
???????????
|
30.3
|
27.4
|
28.3
|
30.5
|
32.8
|
47.6
|
33.0
|
36.3
|
3.0%
|
?????????
|
6.9
|
11.7
|
19.8
|
23.5
|
35.1
|
21.3
|
28.2
|
24.7
|
2.0%
|
????
|
103.4
|
95.5
|
93.1
|
85.6
|
75.4
|
68.8
|
25.2
|
22.7
|
1.9%
|
?????????
|
0.5
|
1.7
|
2.3
|
2.5
|
3.4
|
4.4
|
7.7
|
18.3
|
1.5%
|
???????
|
28.0
|
27.5
|
26.5
|
25.4
|
20.1
|
16.1
|
14.6
|
18.1
|
1.5%
|
???????
|
713.9
|
764.0
|
936.0
|
1,000.6
|
1,073.4
|
1,087.3
|
1,090.8
|
1,212.8
|
100%
|
???????? ???????? ?????????????????
[
????
]
20 ????????? ???????????? ???????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ????????. ???? ????????? ?????????????? ???????? ??????????????????
???????
(206.0 ????????? ??????),
??? ?????? ????????
(172.4) ???????
???? ??????
(125.8) ???????.
[15]
??????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ????????? (????????? ???????? ??????)
[5]
????
|
2006
|
2007
|
2008
|
2009
|
2010
|
?????
|
???????
|
199.7
|
209.0
|
206.0
|
182.1
|
206.7
|
17.5%
|
????
|
42.0
|
56.2
|
44.5
|
151.9
|
195.1
|
16.6%
|
???? ??????
|
84.1
|
94.1
|
107.1
|
109.9
|
125.8
|
10.7%
|
???????
|
52.7
|
29.6
|
70.9
|
76.7
|
101.6
|
8.6%
|
????? ????????
|
69.1
|
72.5
|
70.9
|
64.6
|
71.1
|
6.0%
|
???????
|
50.6
|
56.2
|
55.7
|
45.9
|
55.1
|
4.7%
|
????????
|
22.9
|
25.8
|
21.7
|
22.7
|
30.0
|
2.5%
|
?????? ??????????
|
56.8
|
48.9
|
49.2
|
42.2
|
29.3
|
2.5%
|
???????
|
27.9
|
28.0
|
27.9
|
20.9
|
23.7
|
1.9%
|
???????????
|
25.7
|
29.3
|
23.5
|
22.1
|
22.8
|
1.9%
|
???????
|
28.8
|
26.3
|
34.6
|
26.8
|
21.8
|
1.9%
|
????????
|
24.1
|
22.1
|
24.9
|
18.3
|
20.8
|
1.8%
|
?????? ?????????
|
40.3
|
38.8
|
37.8
|
23.1
|
20.6
|
1.8%
|
???????
|
991.8
|
1,056.5
|
1,063.2
|
1,039.8
|
1,178.1
|
100%
|
???????????
[
????
]
- ↑
"???????? ???????????"
. ????????????? ???? ???? 18, 2013
.
- ↑
"????????"
. ????????????? ???? ???? 18, 2013
.
- ↑
3.0
3.1
"BP Statistical review of world energy 2012"
(XLS)
. British Petroleum.
Archived
from the original on 19 ???? 2012
. ????????????? ????
18 August
2011
.
- ↑
4.0
4.1
EIA International Energy Annual ? Total Coal Exports (Thousand Short Tons)
?????????????
2017-10-13 at the
??????? ?????????
. Tonto.eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
- ↑
5.0
5.1
International Energy Annual ? Total Coal Imports (Thousand Short Tons)
?????????????
2016-04-15 at the
??????? ?????????
. Tonto.eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
- ↑
Taylor, Thomas N; Taylor, Edith L; Krings, Michael (2009).
Paleobotany: The biology and evolution of fossil plants
.
??????????? ?????????? ???
978-0-12-373972-8
.
- ↑
????
:
[1293:ACFPUH
2.0.CO;2 10.1130/0016-7606(1957)68[1293:ACFPUH]2.0.CO;2]
This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes.
You can
jump the queue
or
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- ↑
????
:
10.2113/gsecongeo.76.4.951
This citation will be automatically completed in the next few minutes.
You can
jump the queue
or
expand by hand
- ↑
?????????????? ???????? ???????? ????? ??????????? ????????????
?????????????????
(
proven
) ?????????????.
- ↑
World Energy Council ? Survey of Energy Resources 2010
. (PDF) . Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
- ↑
Sherwood, Alan and Phillips, Jock.
Coal and coal mining ? Coal resources
, Te Ara ? the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 2009-03-02
- ↑
EIA International Energy Annual ? Total Coal Consumption (Thousand Short Tons)
. Eia.gov. Retrieved on 2013-05-11.
- ↑
Table 114. World Metallurgical Coal Flows By Importing Regions and Exporting Countries 1,2/ (million short tons)
. eia.doe.gov
- ↑
World Coal Flows by Importing and Exporting Regions
. Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.
- ↑
EIA International Energy Annual: Coal Overview 2010
. Eia.gov. Retrieved on 24 August 2012.