????????

???????? (Printing) ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????????? ????????????? ??????????? ???????? ???????????????. ????????? ????????????????? ????? ??????????????????? ????? ??????????? ???????? ???????????? ???????. ????????? ???????????? ???????? ??.?? 220 ??? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ???????. ^[1] ??????? ???????? ??.?? 1040 ?????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????????. ^[2] 15 ??? ???????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????????????????. ????? ??????? ???????????, ?????????????, ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????, ?????? ????????? ????????????? ???????????. ??? ??????? ????????? ?????????????. ^[3]

????? ?????? ?????????? ????????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ?????????????????? ????????????????????. ???? ??????????? ??????? ???? ????????????? ???????????? ??????????. ?????????, ???????, ????????????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????. ?????? ????????, ????????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????.

???????? ????????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????, ????? ???????? ???????? ????????? ??????????. ????????, ????????? ???????? ??? ??????? ???????????. 2005 ??? ??????? ?????????????????, ?????? ????? ?????????????? ???????? ??????? 45 ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ^[4]. 2006 ??? ????? ????????????? ??????? 30,700 ?????????? ??????????? ???????. ??? 112 ????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ^[5]. ??????? ??????? ???????????? ????????? ????????????? 12.5% ?? ???????.

?????? [ ???? ]

?? ????? ???? [ ???? ]

??? ????????????, ?????????, ???????????? ????????? ?????????????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????????. ??? ????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????????. ????????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????? ??????? ????????? ??????????????? ??????????. ????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??? ?????????????? ????????? ?????? ???????? ???? 220???? ?????????. ????????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????????????? ??????.

??????????? [ ???? ]

????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????, ????? ???? ??????, ??.?? 868 (??????????? ??????)

????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????? ???????? ???? ????????????. ??? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ???????? ??.?? 220 ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ????????????. ???????????? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ????? ???????????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????.

???? 593 ??? ????????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???????? ????????????????. ????? ???????????? ???????????? ???? 700 ??? ???????????. ??? ?? ?????????? ??????????????. ?? ????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????? ????????? ???????????? ????????? ???? ???????? 9 ??? ???????????? ???????????? ??? ????????? ????????? ????? ????????. ??? ??.?? 868 ??? ??????????????. . ^[6] ??????? ?????????????? ??? ?????????????? ????????? 400,000 ?????? ?????????????????. ????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? 2000 ?????? ???????????????? . ^[7]

??? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? 1041 ??? ??????? ???????????????. ???? ?????????? ???????????? ????????? ??? ??????? ??????????????? ???????. ???? ???? ??????? 1298 ???, ???????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????.

???????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ????? ?????????????? ???????. ????? ??? ???????????? ?????????. ???? ??????? ???? ?????????????? ??????????????? ???????. ??? ???? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??????????????. ????? ???????????????? ??????????????? ???????? ??????? ???????. ^[8] ???????? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????. ??.?? 1400 ??? ????????? ??? ?????? ???????? ??????????. ?????? ?????????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????? ?????????. ^[9] ?????????, ?????????? ???????????, ???????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ??????????????. ^[8]

?????? ????????? ????????? [ ???? ]

???????? ?? ????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ?????? ????????????????????. ??? ???? ????, ?????, ????, ?????? ???????? ?????????????????? ??? ????????? ?????. ???????? ???????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????? ???????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ???????????.

??????????? [ ???? ]

??????????? ????? [ ???? ]

??????? ????? ??????????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????.

	???????????? -???? ca. 1600	?????????? ??????? ??.?? 1800	???????? ??????? 1812<!???????????? ???? ?????? 3496 and 3725 -->	???????? ??????? 1813	???????? ??????? 1814	???????? ??????? 1818
	?? ????? ???? ??????????		?????? ????? ??????????
??? ???????? ?????????????	200 ^[10]	480 ^[11]	800 ^[12]	1,100 ^[13]	2,000 ^[14]	2,400 ^[14]

????????????????? ??????? [ ???? ]

????????????????? ??????? ^[15]
????????? ?????????	???????? ????	????????? ????????	??????? ????????	????????? ??????????	??????? ?????? ???????	???????????	??????? ?????? ???? ?????
????????? ????????	????????	1 MPa		40?100 Pa???	0.5?1.5 μ??	???? ??????? ????	>5,000 ( A3 ?????? ???? , ????-??????) ^[16] >30,000 ( A3 ?????? ???? , ????????-??????) ^[16]
Rotogravure	????????	3 MPa		50-200 mPa???	0.8?8 μ??	???????? ????????? ??????, ???????? ???? ?????????, ???????, ??? ??????????? ?????? ^[17]	>500,000 ^[17]
Flexography	????????	0.3 MPa		50?500 mPa???	0.8?2.5 μ??	???????? (??????? ??????????)
??????? ?????? ????????	?????	10 MPa		50?150 Pa???	0.5?1.5 μ??	??????? ???????
????-????????	?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????????				<12 μ??	????????, ????????
???? ????????????	???? ???????????				5?10 μ??	??????? ??
????? ???? ????????????	???? ???????????? ?????? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ??????????					???? ?????????, ???????? ???? ?????????, ???? ??? ?????????, ??? ??????? ??????,
???????? ???????????	?????????		5?30 ???????????????? (pl)	1?5 Pa??? ^{[ ?????? ???? ]}	<0.5 μ??	????? ????????? ????????? ????	<350 ( A3 ?????? ???? ) ^[16]
???????? ???????????	??????????????		4?30 ???????????????? ( pl)	5?20 mPa ??	<0.5 μ??	????? ????????? ????????? ????	<350 ( A3 ?????? ???? ) ^[16]
???????? ???????????	?????????		5?100 pl	1?5 mPa???	<0.5 μ??	????? ????????? ????????? ????	<350 ( A3 ?????? ???? ) ^[16]
???????? ???????	???????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ???? ??????????? ????					?????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ???????

????????? [ ???? ]

↑ Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", 1990, British Museum publications, ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7141-1447-2
↑ "Great Chinese Inventions" . Minnesota-china.com. Archived from the original on ???????? 3, 2010 . ????????????? ???? July 29, 2010 . {{ cite web }}: Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )
↑ Rees, Fran. Johannes Gutenberg: Inventor of the Printing Press
↑ " When 2% Leads to a Major Industry Shift ????????????? 2008-02-16 at the ??????? ????????? " Patrick Scaglia, August 30, 2007.
↑ ???????? ??????????
↑ "Oneline Gallery: Sacred Texts" . British Library . ????????????? ???? March 10, 2012 .
↑ Tsuen-Hsuin, Tsien ; Needham, Joseph (1985). Paper and Printing . Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 158, 201.
↑ ^8.0 ^8.1 Thomas Franklin Carter , The Invention of Printing in China and its Spread Westward , The Ronald Press, NY 2nd ed. 1955, pp. 176?178
↑ Mayor, A Hyatt. Prints and People . Vol. 5?18. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-691-00326-2 .
↑ Pollak, Michael (1972). "The performance of the wooden printing press" . The library quarterly 42 (2): 218-264. . http://www.jstor.org/stable/4306163 . ??????? ????: 10 May 2017 .
↑ Bolza 1967 , ?. 80
↑ Bolza 1967 , ?. 83
↑ Bolza 1967 , ?. 87
↑ ^14.0 ^14.1 Bolza 1967 , ?. 88
↑ Kipphan, Helmut (2001). Handbook of print media: technologies and production methods (Illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 130?144. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 3-540-67326-1 .
↑ ^16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 ^16.4 Kipphan, Helmut (2001). Handbook of print media: technologies and production methods (Illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 976?979. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 3-540-67326-1 .
↑ ^17.0 ^17.1 Kipphan, Helmut (2001). Handbook of print media: technologies and production methods (Illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 48?52. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 3-540-67326-1 .

?????????? ????? [ ???? ]

??????????

?????? ?????? [ ???? ]

Saunders, Gill; Miles, Rosie (May 1, 2006). Prints Now: Directions and Definitions . Victoria and Albert Museum. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 1-85177-480-7 .
Lafontaine, Gerard S. (1958). Dictionary of Terms Used in the Paper, Printing, and Allied Industries . Toronto: H. Smith Paper Mills. 110 p.
Nesbitt, Alexander (1957). The History and Technique of Lettering . Dover Books.
Steinberg, S.H. (1996). Five Hundred Years of Printing . London and Newcastle: The British Library and Oak Knoll Press.
Gaskell, Philip (1995). A New Introduction to Bibliography . Winchester and Newcastle: St Paul's Bibliographies and Oak Knoll Press.
Elizabeth L. Eisenstein , The Printing Press as an Agent of Change , Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-521-29955-1
Marshall McLuhan , The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed.); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7100-1818-5
Tam, Pui-Wing The New Paper Trail , The Wall Street Journal Online , February 13, 2006 Pg.R8
Tsien Tsuen-hsuin (1985). Paper and Printing . Joseph Needham, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. 5 part 1 . Cambridge University Press
Woong-Jin-Wee-In-Jun-Gi No. 11 Jang Young Sil by Baek Sauk Gi. Copyright 1987 Woongjin Publishing Co., Ltd. Pg. 61.

???????????? ?????????? ?????????

?????????????? ?????? ???????????? ?????????

Moxon, Joseph (1962). Herbert, Davies; Carter, Harry. eds. Mechanick Exercises on the Whole Art of Printing (reprint ). New York: Dover Publications.

A somewhat later one, showing 18th century developments is

Stower, Caleb (1965). The Printer's Grammar (reprint ). London: Gregg Press.

???? ?????????? [ ???? ]

???????????? printing ??????? ???????? ???????????.

" Printing ". ?????????????? ?????????????? (11th) 22 . (1911).
Prints & People: A Social History of Printed Pictures , an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)
Centre for the History of the Book ????????????? 2008-06-24 at the ??????? ?????????
Children of the Code ? Online Video: The DNA of Science, The Alphabet and Printing
Planet Typography ? history of printing ? selection of international sites dedicated to the history of printing
Printing Industries of the Americas ????????????? 2019-08-24 at the ??????? ????????? ? national trade association for printers and companies in the graphic arts
Printwiki
The development of book and printing . English website of the Gutenberg-Museum Mainz (Germany)
BPSnet British Printing Society
Taiwan Culture Portal: Ri Xing Type Foundry－ preserving the true character of Chinese type ????????????? 2011-05-24 at the ??????? ?????????
A collection of printing materials from the 19th Century ? Documents printed by R. Mathison Jr., The Job Printer, in Vancouver, B.C. - UBC Library Digital Collections
International Printing Museum, Carson, CA, Web site
Museum of Printing, Andover, MA, Web site

[cave-1] Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", 1990, British Museum publications, ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7141-1447-2

[Great_Chinese_Inventions-2] "Great Chinese Inventions" . Minnesota-china.com. Archived from the original on ???????? 3, 2010 . ????????????? ???? July 29, 2010 . {{ cite web }}: Check date values in: |archive-date= ( help )

[3] Rees, Fran. Johannes Gutenberg: Inventor of the Printing Press

[vj_ipg2-0_keynote-4] " When 2% Leads to a Major Industry Shift ????????????? 2008-02-16 at the ??????? ????????? " Patrick Scaglia, August 30, 2007.

[5] ???????? ??????????

[6] "Oneline Gallery: Sacred Texts" . British Library . ????????????? ???? March 10, 2012 .

[Needham-7] Tsuen-Hsuin, Tsien ; Needham, Joseph (1985). Paper and Printing . Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 158, 201.

[Carter-8] 8.0 ^8.1 Thomas Franklin Carter , The Invention of Printing in China and its Spread Westward , The Ronald Press, NY 2nd ed. 1955, pp. 176?178

[9] Mayor, A Hyatt. Prints and People . Vol. 5?18. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-691-00326-2 .

[10] Pollak, Michael (1972). "The performance of the wooden printing press" . The library quarterly 42 (2): 218-264. . http://www.jstor.org/stable/4306163 . ??????? ????: 10 May 2017 .

[Bolza_1967,_80-11] Bolza 1967 , ?. 80

[12] Bolza 1967 , ?. 83

[13] Bolza 1967 , ?. 87

[Bolza_1967,_88-14] 14.0 ^14.1 Bolza 1967 , ?. 88

[kipphan130-144-15] Kipphan, Helmut (2001). Handbook of print media: technologies and production methods (Illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 130?144. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 3-540-67326-1 .

[kipphan976-979-16] 16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 ^16.4 Kipphan, Helmut (2001). Handbook of print media: technologies and production methods (Illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 976?979. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 3-540-67326-1 .

[kipphan48-52-17] 17.0 ^17.1 Kipphan, Helmut (2001). Handbook of print media: technologies and production methods (Illustrated ed.). Springer. pp. 48?52. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 3-540-67326-1 .

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