?????????

????????? (???????) ( ??????? ????????? :? φ?σι? physis ?"??????") ?????? ?????????? ???????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????? ???? ?????????? ??? ???????????. ^[1]^[2] ????????? ??? ????????????, ???????? ?????? ??????????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????. ^[3]^[4]^[5]

??????????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????

???????????? ??????? ????????? ????? ????????? ?????; ??????????? ?????????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???????. ^[6] ????? ??? ?????????????? ????????? , ?????????? ??? ???????, ??????? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ???????? ??????????? ??????. ??????????? 17??? ?????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????? ??????????????? ?????????????. ^[7]

????????? ???????????????? ???? ???????? ??????????; ??? ????????? ?????????? ?????. ????????? ??????? ?????????, ??? ???????? ?????????????????, ???????? ????? ?????????? ??????; ????????? ????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????? ?????? ??????. ????????? ????? ????????? , ????? ????????? ?? ??????? ???????? ??????????????????? ???????????? ??????????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ??????. ??????????? ?? ????? ???????????????? ??????????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????????????? ??????????????? ????? ????????????????? ????????????? ??????.

????????? ??????????????? ?????????????? ????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ??????????????. ???????, ?????????????? ?????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????????????? ???? ???????? ???????? ??????? ??????????? ???????????? , ???????? , ???????? ???????? , ??????? ??? ????????? ????? ???????? ???????????????? ?????????; ????? ?????????? ?????????? ????????????? ; ????????? ?????????????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????.

?????? ?????????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????????? ????????? ???????? ??? ????????????; ???????? ??????????, ????????? ?????????? ?????????????? ????????? ???????????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????????????????? ??????? ????????? ????????????. ???? ???????? ????? ??????????????? , ???????????? , ??????????????? ????? ?????????????????? ??????? ??????? ????? , ????? ????????? , ?????????? ?????? , ????? ???? ?????????? , ???????? ???? , ?????? ???????? ????????? , ???????? ????????? , ?????? ???? , ?????? ???????? , ??????? ????????? , ???? ?????? , ????????? ??????????? , ??????? ???????? ????? ????????????????? ?????????????????????????.

??????

????? ????????? (1643?1727)

???????? ????????? (1879?1955)

?????? ???????? (1858?1947)

?? ????????? ??????????? ????????????? ????????? ???????? ???????????? ???????? ???????? ???? ?????????. ???????? ?? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ???????? ???????. ?????? ????????? ????? ??????????? ??????????????? ??.?? 650?480 ??? ????????????? ???? ???????. ?????? ????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????????? ?????? ??????????? ????????? ???????????;??????? ????????????? ??? ????????? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????????. ^[8] ??????? ????????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????????? ???????? ?? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????????????. ^[9] ??????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ??????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ???????? ?????? ??????????? ???????????? ?????????.

?????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? 1543??? ?????? ????????? ????? ?? ??????????? ????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????. ?????????????? ?????????????? ???????????????? ??????? ?????????? ????????? ??????????? ????? ?? ??????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????????. ???? ????????????????? ???? ???????????? ?????? ????? ?????????? ????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????????? ???????? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????????????? ????????? ?????????. ?????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ????????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??????????. ????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ??????? , ?????? ??????? , ???????????? ?????? ????? ??????????? ???????????? ???????????.

???? ??????????????? ??????????????? ???? ????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ??????????? ??????????? ????????????. ?????????????????? ????????? ????????? ?? ????????????. ^[10]^[11] ????????? ??????? , ??????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ???????????????. ^[12] ????????????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ??????????? ????? ?????????? , ????????? ??????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????? ??????.

?????? ???????????? ????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ???????? ????????????? ?????? ????????? ????????; ????????? , ??????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????????????? ????????? ????????? ????????? ???????????.

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???? ????????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????????????? ?????????? ??????????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????????? ?????. ??? ?????? ??????? ???????????? ???????? ???????????? ????????????? , ?????????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????? ????? ????????? ??????? ??????????? ?? ??????????????????????????. ????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????????????? ??????????????????????????????? .

?????????????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????????? ????????????. ???????? ???????????? ???????????????? ???????????????? ????? ??????????? ????? ?????????????????. ??????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ???? ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ???????????????? ?????????????????.

??????? , ???????????? , ????????????, ????? ??????? ????????????? , ???????????????????, ????????, ???????? ????????, ??????? , ????????? ?????????? ??????? ???????, ???????????? ?????? ?????????, ???????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ?? ????????? ???????????????? ??????????? ?????????????????????. ?????????? , ?????????? , ?????? / ???????????? , ??????????? , ???? ?????????, ????????????????, ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ???????????????? ????????????? ???????? ?????.

????????? ??????????.

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20??? ???????????? ???????????? ???????? ????????? ???????????????? ???????? ???????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ?????????????: ????????? ???????? ???????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ???????? .

????????? ???????? ????????????, ?????????, ????????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????? ??????? ???????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????????? ????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ??????????. ??????????? ?????????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????????? ??????? ????? , ??? ?????? , ????? ????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ???? ?????????????????? ??????????? ??????????????????. ??????????? ??????? ??????????????? ??? ????????????? ??????? ??????.

??????, ?????? ???????? ???????? ????????????? ???????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????? ??????????. ????????? ??????? ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????? ?????????. ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????????. ??????????????? ??? ??????????????, ??????? ?????????????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ??????????????? ?????? ?????????. ?????? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????????? ????????? ??? ????? ?????????????? ????????? ??????????????.

????? ??????????

?????????? ????? ??????????? ???????????.

????? ?????????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ???????? ?????? ??????? ????????? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??????????. ???? ???????? ??????????? ( ??????? , ??????? , ?????? ?????) ???? ??????? ?????????????? ?????? ????????????. ???????? ??????????, ?? ???? , ???????? , ????????? ????? ????????? ???????????? ??????? ????????? ?????????????? ?????????? ????????????. ????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ????????????? ???????????: ??????????????????????? (?????? ????? ????), ?????? ????????? ?????? (????? ????), ?????????? ???????? ?????? (???????? ????) ??????? ??????????? ??????????? (???????? ????). ^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16]

????? ???????????? ??????????? ??????? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ?????????????? ????? ????????? ?????? ????????. ?????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???????????? ?????????? ??????????? ???????????? ??????? ??????????? ?????????????? ???????? ????????????. ????????? ?????????? ??????? ?????????????? ???????????????????????? ??? ????????????? ????????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????; ???? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????? ????????? ????????????? ??????????? ??????????? ??????? ??????????? ????????? ?????? ??????????? ???????? ????????????. ?????????? ??????? ???????????? ?????? ?????? ????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????. ^[17]

????? ?????????? ????????????? , ???? ???????, ????????? ??????? , ???????????? ??????????, ????????? ????? ??????? ???????? ??????? ????????? ????????? ????????????????????. ???????????????? ????????? ???? ????????? ????????????? ????????? , ?????? ????????? , ?????????? ????????? , ????????? , ???????????? ????????? , ?????? ???????? , ??????????????? ????????? , ??????? ???????????? ????? ??????????? ?????????????????????. ^[18]^[19]

????????? ?????????

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1927??? ???????? ?????? ?????????? ?????????????????????????: ???????? ????????? , ??????? ????????? , ?????? ???????? , ????????? ??????? , ?????? ???? , ???? ?????? , ??????? ??????????? ??????? ???? ?????? .

????????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? ????????????? ?????? ??????????????????? ????????? ???????????. ????? ????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????????? ???????????????? ????????????????? ???????????. ???? ????????????? ??? ?????????? ??? ??????????? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ??????????. ?????? ??? ???????? ?????????? ????? ???????? ???????????????????; ??? ????????????? ??????????? ?????? ????????????????? ???? ??????. ??????????? ?????????????? (?????? ????????????? ) ???? ????? ?????? ??? ??????????? ???????? ????????? ?????????? ??????????; ?????? ???? ?????????? ?? ?????????? ???????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????????. ????????? ???????? ???? ???????????? ??????????? ??? ???????????????? ( ?????? ) ????????????? ???????????. ??? ?????????? ?????????????? ??????????? ?????? ?????????????? ????? ??????????????????? ???????????. ??? ??????????? ???? ?????? ?????????????? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ?????????????????? ?? ?????? ?????????????? ????????????????? ?????? ??????????????????. ???? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????????? ??????.

20??? ???????????? ???????????? ????????????? ????????? ????????? ??????????? ??? ?????????? ????????. ?????? ??????????? ?????????? ??????????? ????????? ????????? ????????????.

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↑ Richard Feynman begins his Lectures with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations …, what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is … that all things are made up of atoms ? little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. … " R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics . Vol.?1. p.?I-2. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-201-02116-1 . {{ cite book }}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )
↑ J.C. Maxwell (1878). Matter and Motion . D. Van Nostrand. p.?9. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-486-66895-9 . Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.
↑ H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman (2004). University Physics with Modern Physics (11th?ed.). Addison Wesley. p.?2. Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.
↑ S. Holzner (2006). Physics for Dummies . John Wiley & Sons. p.?7. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-470-61841-8 . Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.
↑ Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
↑ ???? 3000?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????????? ??????????? ???????????? , ?????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????, ???????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????.
↑ ?????????? ????????? 1620 Novum Organum ???????? ????????????????????? ????????????????.
↑ Singer, C. A Short History of Science to the 19th century. Streeter Press, 2008. p. 35.
↑ Lloyd, Geoffrey (1970). Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle . London; New York: Chatto and Windus; W. W. Norton & Company. pp.? 108 ?109. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-393-00583-6 .
↑ Ben-Chaim, Michael (2004). Experimental Philosophy and the Birth of Empirical Science: Boyle, Locke and Newton . Aldershot: Ashgate. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7546-4091-4 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 53887772 57202497 . {{ cite book }}: Check |oclc= value ( help ) ; Invalid |ref=harv ( help )
↑ Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History . iUniverse. p.? 155 . ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-595-36877-8 . Weidhorn Introduces Galili as the "father of modern Physics"
↑ Guicciardini, Niccolo (1999), Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736, New York: Cambridge University Press.
↑ ????????? ?273.15 °C (?????????), ?????? ?459.67 °F (??????????) ?????? 0 K (????????).
↑ Crawford, F.H. (1963). Heat, Thermodynamics, and Statistical Physics , Rupert Hart-Davis, London, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., pp. 106?107.
↑ Haase, R. (1963/1969). Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes , translated in English, Addison-Wesley, Reading MA, pp. 10?11.
↑ Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning . Taylor and Francis. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7484-0569-0 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 36457809 .
↑ "kinetic theory of gases" . ????????????? ???? 1 ???????? 2008 . {{ cite web }}: Check date values in: |accessdate= ( help )
↑ Smith, J.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics . McGraw Hill. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-07-310445-0 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 56491111 . {{ cite book }}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( help )
↑ Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics . Cambridge University Press. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-521-79549-4 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 43993556 . {{ cite book }}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )

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Usenet Physics FAQ ? ????????? ???????????????????? sci.physics ?????????? ????????????? ?.??,??
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52-part video course: ??????????? ????????...?????? ????????????? 2013-03-22 at the ??????? ?????????

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APS.org ? ???????? ????????? ???? ?????? ?????????
IOP.org ????????????? 2019-05-21 at the ??????? ????????? ? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????????
PlanetPhysics.org ????????????? 2009-02-25 at the ??????? ?????????
Royal Society ? ?????????????? ??? ???????? ????????????? ????????? ???????? ??????? ???????.
SPS National ? ????????? ?????????????? ???? ?????? ?????????

[feynman-1] Richard Feynman begins his Lectures with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations …, what statement would contain the most information in the fewest words? I believe it is … that all things are made up of atoms ? little particles that move around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. … " R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics . Vol.?1. p.?I-2. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-201-02116-1 . {{ cite book }}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )

[2] J.C. Maxwell (1878). Matter and Motion . D. Van Nostrand. p.?9. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-486-66895-9 . Physical science is that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events.

[3] H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman (2004). University Physics with Modern Physics (11th?ed.). Addison Wesley. p.?2. Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of broad use, physical laws or principles.

[4] S. Holzner (2006). Physics for Dummies . John Wiley & Sons. p.?7. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-470-61841-8 . Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe around you.

[5] Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.

[6] ???? 3000?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ???????????? ??????????? ???????????? , ?????? ????????????? ??????? ??????????????? ???????? ???????, ???????? ??????? ????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????????????? ????????? ???????????? ?????????.

[7] ?????????? ????????? 1620 Novum Organum ???????? ????????????????????? ????????????????.

[8] Singer, C. A Short History of Science to the 19th century. Streeter Press, 2008. p. 35.

[9] Lloyd, Geoffrey (1970). Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle . London; New York: Chatto and Windus; W. W. Norton & Company. pp.? 108 ?109. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-393-00583-6 .

[10] Ben-Chaim, Michael (2004). Experimental Philosophy and the Birth of Empirical Science: Boyle, Locke and Newton . Aldershot: Ashgate. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7546-4091-4 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 53887772 57202497 . {{ cite book }}: Check |oclc= value ( help ) ; Invalid |ref=harv ( help )

[11] Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History . iUniverse. p.? 155 . ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-595-36877-8 . Weidhorn Introduces Galili as the "father of modern Physics"

[12] Guicciardini, Niccolo (1999), Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736, New York: Cambridge University Press.

[13] ????????? ?273.15 °C (?????????), ?????? ?459.67 °F (??????????) ?????? 0 K (????????).

[14] Crawford, F.H. (1963). Heat, Thermodynamics, and Statistical Physics , Rupert Hart-Davis, London, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., pp. 106?107.

[15] Haase, R. (1963/1969). Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes , translated in English, Addison-Wesley, Reading MA, pp. 10?11.

[16] Dugdale, J.S. (1998). Entropy and its Physical Meaning . Taylor and Francis. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-7484-0569-0 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 36457809 .

[17] "kinetic theory of gases" . ????????????? ???? 1 ???????? 2008 . {{ cite web }}: Check date values in: |accessdate= ( help )

[18] Smith, J.M. (2005). Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics . McGraw Hill. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-07-310445-0 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 56491111 . {{ cite book }}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored ( help )

[19] Haynie, Donald, T. (2001). Biological Thermodynamics . Cambridge University Press. ??????????? ?????????? ??? 0-521-79549-4 . ?????? ????? ???? ??? ??? 43993556 . {{ cite book }}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link )

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