??? ???

??? ??? , ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??, ?????? ????, ??? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??? ^[1] ????? ?? ??? ????? ??? 19??? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ????-???? ???? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? 19??? ??? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ??? ????| ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ???? ???????? (???) ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ??? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ????????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ??? ??? ?? ???? ??? ????? ??, ??? ??? ????????? ?? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???

??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ??? [ ???? ]

????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ???? ????? ????? 1878 ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??, ???? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???? '???????' ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ???-??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ???, ???? ?? ?? ???? '???????' ?? ??? ???? ?????? ???
?? ??? ??? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ???? '????????' ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ???? '??????' ??? '???????' ?????? ??? ??? '????????' ???? ??? ????, ???? ?? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ??? '????????' ????? ??? ???? ???? ???
?????? ????????? ??? ???? '??????? ?????? ????????' ??? ??? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ???? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ???? ??? ??? ??????? ?????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???-???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ??? ???? '??????????' ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ???? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ?? ????????? ???? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??????????? ?? ??????? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ????????? ???? ?????? ????? ??, ?????? ?? ???-??? ?? ????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???? '????????' ????? ?????? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ??? '????' ???? ????? ????? ??? ^[2]

?????? [ ???? ]

??? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??:

????????? ??? ???? ??? - ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ????? ???
- ' ?????? ???' - ?? ?? ????????? ???? ??? ?? ????? ??, ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ????????? ??? ?????????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???
??? ??????? ???(gas discharge lamp) - ?? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ??? ??????? ?????????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??? ??? ?? ?? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ???
??????? ???? ???? ????? (light-emitting diode) - ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ???

?????? [ ???? ]

???? 1860 ???? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ??? ???? ???????? ??? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ?? ????
1878 ???? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ??? ???
1879 ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? 1500 ?????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ’? ?????? ?????
1881 ???? ???. ???. ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???????
1882 ???? ???. ???. ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ???
1903 ???? ?????. ??. ????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ??? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??? ????? ????? ?????
1910 ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???? ?????????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???

????? [ ???? ]

↑ "How Does a Lightbulb Work?" . June 17, 1992. Archived from the original on 8 ???? 2012 . Retrieved 20 May 2012 . {{ cite web }}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored ( |url-status= suggested) ( help )
↑ Ozzie Zehner (2012). "Promises and Limitations of Light Emitting Diodes" . Retrieved 20 May 2012 .

????? ?????? [ ???? ]

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[1] "How Does a Lightbulb Work?" . June 17, 1992. Archived from the original on 8 ???? 2012 . Retrieved 20 May 2012 . {{ cite web }}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored ( |url-status= suggested) ( help )

[2] Ozzie Zehner (2012). "Promises and Limitations of Light Emitting Diodes" . Retrieved 20 May 2012 .

[1]

[2]