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Lexicography
[
??????
]
The art and craft of writing dictionaries is called
lexicography
.
The
Erya
, from the early
3rd century BC
, was the first
Chinese language
dictionary. The book organized
Chinese characters
by semantic groups. The intention of this dictionary was to explain the true meaning and interpretation of words in the context of older ancient texts.
One of the earliest dictionaries known, and which is still extant today in an abridged form, was written in
Latin
during the reign of the emperor
Augustus
. It is known by the ??????
De Significatu Verborum
("On the meaning of words") and was originally compiled by
Verrius Flaccus
. It was twice abridged in succeeding centuries, first by
Sextus Pompeius Festus
, and then by
Paul the Deacon
. Verrius Flaccus' dictionary was an abridged list of difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by quotations from early Roman authors.
The word "dictionary" comes from
neoclassical
Latin
,
dictio
, meaning simply "word".
The first true English dictionary was
Robert Cawdrey
's
Table Alphabeticall
of
1604
, although it only included 3,000 words and the definitions it contained were little more than synonyms. The first one to be at all comprehensive was
Thomas Blount
's dictionary
Glossographia
of
1656
. Though many believe that
Samuel Johnson
's famous and more complete dictionary of
1755
was the first dictionary it was predated by Blount, as well as Kersey and Bailey.
In
1806
,
Noah Webster's
dictionary
was published by the G&C Merriam Company of
Springfield, Massachusetts
which still publishes
Merriam-Webster
dictionaries, but the term
Webster's
is considered generic and can be used by any dictionary.
The most complete dictionary of the English language is the
???????? ??????? ????????
. The first edition was properly begun in 1860 and was completed in 1928, by which time a supplement that took an additional five years to complete was already necessary.
The largest dictionary in the world is "het Woordenboek der Nederlansche Taal (WNT)" (the Dictionary of the
Dutch language
). It took 134 years to create the dictionary (1864 - 1998). It consists of approximately 400,000 words on 45805 pages in 92000 columns.
[?]
Today, dictionaries of most
languages
with
alphabet
ic and syllabic
writing system
s list words in
lexicographic
order, usually alphabetical or some analogous
phonetic
system.
In many languages, words are grouped together according to their true or normal origin ("root"), and these roots are arranged alphabetically. If English dictionaries were arranged like this, the words "import", "export", "support", "report", "porter", "port", "important" and "transportation" would all be listed under "
port
". This method has the advantage that all words of a common origin are listed together, but the
disadvantage
is that one has to know how to recognise all
prefixes
of a word before one can look it up. Some
Hebrew
,
Sanskrit
, and
Arabic
dictionaries work this way.
While most of Japanese and Korean dictionaries are arraged according to their phonetic writing (
kana
syllabic script for the Japanese, and
hangul
alphabet for the Korean), the main body of modern Chinese dictionaries mostly is still ordered according to the Chinese
logographic
writing system; but most Chinese dictionaries have an appendix ordering entries in accordance to the
latin alphabet
with the
pinyin
spelling, in order to allow readers to find words written in
logograms
whose pronunciation is not known. Chinese characters may be sorted according to one of many
schemes
based on the component parts of the characters (
radicals
, number of
strokes
, overall shape).
The first English alphabetical dictionary came out in
1604
and alphabetical ordering was a
rarity
until the
18th century
. Before alphabetical listings, dictionaries were organized by topic, i.e. a list of animals all together in one topic.
retirement-
appoint
Coverage
[
??????
]
Dictionaries vary widely in size and scope. A dictionary that attempts to cover as many words from a particular speech community as possible is called a
maximizing dictionary
(e.g. the
???????? ??????? ????????
), whereas a dictionary that attempts to cover only a limited selection of words from a speech community is called a
minimizing dictionary
(e.g. a dictionary containing the 2000 most frequently used words in the English language).
Special-purpose dictionaries
[
??????
]
There are many different types of dictionaries, including bilingual, multilingual, historical, biographical, and geographical dictionaries.
Bilingual dictionaries
[
??????
]
In bilingual dictionaries, each entry has translations of words in another language. For example, in a Japanese-English dictionary, the entry
tsuki
has a corresponding English word,
moon.
In dictionaries between English and a language using a non-
Roman
script, entry words in the non-English language may be either printed and sorted in the native order, or
romanized
and sorted in Roman alphabetical order.
Specialised dictionaries
[
??????
]
Specialised dictionaries (also referred to as technical dictionaries) focus on linguistic and factual matters relating to specific subject fields. A
specialised dictionary
may have a relatively broad coverage, e.g. a
picture dictionary
, in that it covers several subject fields such as science and technology (a
multi-field dictionary
), or their coverage may be more narrow, in that they cover one particular subject field such as law (a
single-field dictionary
) or even a specific sub-field such as contract law (a
sub-field dictionary
). Specialised dictionaries may be
maximizing dictionaries
, i.e. they attempt to achieve comprehensive coverage of the terms in the subject field concerned, or they may be
minimizing dictionaries
, i.e. they attempt to cover only a limited number of the specialised vocabulary concerned. Generally, multi-field dictionaries tend to be minimizing, whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to be maximizing. See also
LSP dictionary
.
Character dictionaries
[
??????
]
In East Asian languages, a dictionary form for
Han (Chinese) characters
has developed, called
Kan-wa jiten
(literally 'Han-Japanese dictionary') in Japanese and
Okpyeon
('Jewel Book') in Korean. Each entry has one Chinese character with information about
stroke
count and order, readings (pronunciations), and a list of words using that character.
These characters are not arbitrary; they are composed of simpler characters, one of which is called the "radical", which indicates its category. The ordering of the characters in the dictionary is by radical, in order of the number of strokes in the radical. Characters using that radical are then ordered by the number of strokes added to the radical. To fit more strokes in a character, radicals can come in simplified variants, which have to be learned; for example, the character for "dog" is altered when it is used as the radical of the character for "cat".
Data dictionaries
[
??????
]
Data sets and
database
s collected and utilized for
statistical
analyses are typically accompanied by, or able to be used to generate, a list of all
variable
names used within the data set, as well as matters such as their meaning, values,
level of measurement
, length, decimal allowances, and type (numeric, string, etc.)
Glossaries
[
??????
]
Another variant is the
glossary
, an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialised field, such as medicine or science. The simplest dictionary, a
defining dictionary
, provides a
core glossary
of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language. In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words. With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English
idiom
s and
metaphor
s, can be defined.
Pronunciation key
[
??????
]
Dictionaries often provide a pronunciation key, which spells the defined word in a
phonetic alphabet
. For example, the definition for Dictionary might be followed by the phonetic spelling: (d?k'sh?-n?r'?). There also are other ones like (th'en).
????:Sectionstub
Variations between dictionaries
[
??????
]
Prescription and description
[
??????
]
Dictionary makers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words:
prescriptive
or
descriptive
.
Noah Webster
, intent on forging a distinct identity for the American language, altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of some words. This is why
American English
now uses the spelling
color
while the rest of the English-speaking world prefers
colour
. (Similarly,
British English
subsequently underwent a few spelling changes that did not affect American English; see further at
American and British English spelling differences
.) Large 20th-century dictionaries such as the
???????? ??????? ????????
(OED) and
Webster's Third
are descriptive, and attempt to describe the actual use of words.
While descriptivists argue that prescriptivism is an unnatural attempt to dictate usage or curtail change, prescriptivists argue that to indiscriminately document "improper" or "inferior" usages sanctions those usages by default and causes language to "deteriorate". Although the debate can become very heated, only a small number of controversial words are usually affected. But the softening of usage notations, from the previous edition, for two words,
ain't
and
regardless,
out of over 450,000 in Webster's Third in
1961
, was enough to provoke outrage among many with prescriptivist leanings, who branded the dictionary as "permissive."
The prescriptive/descriptive issue has been given so much consideration in modern times that most dictionaries of English apply the descriptive method to definitions, while additionally informing readers of attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused.
Merriam-Webster
is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as,
sometimes offensive
or
nonstand
(nonstandard.)
American Heritage
goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous "usage notes."
Encarta
provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, "an offensive term for..." or "a taboo term meaning..."
Because of the broad use of dictionaries, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity. In the long run, however, usage primarily determines the meanings of words in English, and the language is being changed and created every day. As
Jorge Luis Borges
says in the prologue to "El otro, el mismo": "
It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define. The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature.
"
Other variations
[
??????
]
Since words and their meanings develop over time, dictionary entries are organized to reflect these changes. Dictionaries may either list meanings in the historical order in which they appeared, or may list meanings in order of popularity and most common use.
Dictionaries also differ in the degree to which they are
encyclopedic
, providing considerable background information, illustrations, and the like, or
linguistic
, concentrating on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations demonstrating usage.
Any dictionary has been designed to fulfil one or more functions. The dictionary functions chosen by the maker(s) of the dictionary provide the basis for all lexicographic decisions, from the selection of entry words, over the choice of information types, to the choice of place for the information (e.g. in an article or in an appendix). There are two main types of function. The communication-oriented functions comprise text reception (understanding), text production, text revision, and translation. The knowledge-oriented functions deal with situations where the dictionary is used for acquiring specific knowledge about a particular matter, and for acquiring general knowledge about something. The optimal dictionary is one that contains information directly relevant for the needs of the users relating to one or more of these functions. It is important that the information is presented in a way that keeps the
lexicographic information cost
s at a minimum.
- The Irish mathematical physicist,
J. L. Synge
, created a game,
Circ
, to emphasize the circular reasoning implicit in the defining process of any standard dictionary.
- The word 'set' has the longest definition in a standard dictionary.
- The longest word in the English dictionary is
pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis
(45 letters) this is a lung disease caused by inhaling silica dust.
English without `e'
[
??????
]
Once Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar jokingly asked Madhusudan Dutt, "As you are a Master in English, can you make a sentence without using a single 'E'?"
"I doubt I can. It’s a major part of many many words. Omitting it, is as hard as making muffins without flour. It’s as hard as spitting without saliva, napping without a pillow, driving a train without tracks, sailing to Russia without a boat, washing your hands without soap. And, anyway, what would I gain? An award? A cash bonus? Bragging rights? Why should I strain my brain? It’s not worth it."
Step-by-step improvement in English Alphabets - suggested by Mark Twain
[
??????
]
For example, in Year 1 that useless letter "c" would be dropped to be replased either by "k" or "s", and likewise "x" would no longer be part of the alphabet.
The only kase in which "c" would be retained would be the "ch" formation, which will be dealt with later.
Year 2 might reform "w" spelling, so that "which" and "one" would take the same konsonant, wile Year 3 might well abolish "y" replasing it with "i" and iear 4 might fiks the "g/j" anomali wonse and for all.
Jenerally, then, the improvement would kontinue iear bai iear with iear 5 doing awai with useless double konsonants, and iears 6-12 or so modifaiing vowlz and the rimeining voist and unvoist konsonants.
Bai iear 15 or sou, it wud fainali bi posibl tu meik ius ov thi ridandant letez "c", "y" and "x"?bai now jast a memori in the maindz ov ould doderez?tu riplais "ch", "sh", and "th" rispektivli.
Fainali, xen, aafte sam 20 iers ov orxogrefkl riform, wi wud hev a lojikl, kohirnt speling in ius xrewawt xe Ingliy-spiking werld.
List of major English dictionaries
[
??????
]
For languages other than modern English, see the article about that language. See also articles such as
Japanese dictionaries
.
List of major online English dictionaries
[
??????
]
- Wiktionary
, A collaborative project run by the Wikimedia Foundation + List of online dictionaries
- AskOxford
Archived
2007-06-07 at the
Wayback Machine
., The Compact Oxford English Dictionary
- Bartleby
, American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition
- Cambridge
, Cambridge Dictionaries Online
- Merriam-Webster
, The Merriam-Webster dictionary
- Oxford
, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
- Collins
, Collins English dictionary and thesaurus
See also
[
??????
]
References
[
??????
]
????:Wiktionary
- Manual of Specialised Lexicography
, Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.), Benjamins Publishing, 1995
- Diction and Stylistics of the 21st century
, Darwin, Charles Schickelgruber Maxis (ed.), Jackson Publishing, 2001
- The Bilingual LSP Dictionary
, Sandro Nielsen, Gunter Narr Verlag 1994
- Dictionaries, The Art and Craft of Lexicography
, Sidney I. Landau, Simon & Schuster, 1998, hardcover,
ISBN 0-684-18096-0
- The Professor and the Madman, A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary
, Simon Winchester, HarperPerennial, New York, 1998, trade paperback,
ISBN 0-06-017596-6
. (published in the UK as
The Surgeon of Crowthorne
)
- "A Brief History of English Lexicography"
. Archived from
the original
on 2008-03-09
.
2007-01-22
???? ??????
.