???????

?????? ?????

????????? ???? ??????? ???? ???????? ???? . ????? ? ???? ?????? ??????? ???????? . ??? ?????? ?????? ?. ??????????? ???? ?? ???? . ??? ????????? ????? ??????????? ????????? ???? ????? ???? ?????????????. ????? ???? ??????? ??? ????????? ????????? ???? ?????????? ????????????. ????????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? [fuse]????? ????????? ???????????? ????????????? ?????????? ????? ??????? ??????????????. ??? ???? ????? ????? ? ????????????? ??????????.

???????????? 0 ?????? 1??? ?????? ?????? ???? ???????? ???? ??????? ???? ????. ?????? He. ?????? ?????? 2. ?????? ??? 4.003. ??????????: 26 ???????????? ??????????? -272.05 ⁰ ??; ?????????, -268.79 ⁰ ?? ??????? ????????, 0.166. ??????????? ??????? 1s ². 2 ????? (3He, 4He) ????? 4 ??? ????? ???????? ????????? ????????????? . ?????? ????? 2??? ????.

?????? [ ???????? ]

?????????? ???? ^[?]^[?] ??????? ?????????? ??????? ???? ??????? ???? ????????? ??????? ???????????? ????? ?????? ????? ??????????? (1824-1907) ????????????? (1868) ^[?] ??? ??????? ???????? ???????????? ???? ?????? ????????????. ??? ???? ???????? ???????????? ?????? ??????? ???????? (1836-1920) ??? ?????????? ????????? D1 ????? D2 ???????????? ????????? ??? ???????? ???? ???? ?????????? ???????. ?????? ??????????? ??? ??????????????? ??????? D3 ???? ????????. ^[?]^[?] ???????? ????????????? ???????? ?????????????????? (1825-99) ????? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??????? (??????, ????????: ?????) ???? ?????? ???????. ^[?]^[?] ???????? ????????????? ??????? ?????????? (1852-1916) ????????? ????? ??????????? ???? ??????? ???? ????? (1895) ??????????? ??? ???? ???? ???????????. ^[?]^[?] ??????? ????????? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??????? ???? ???????? ????????????? ?????????? ???? (1877-1956) ????? ?????????? ????????????? (1903). ??????? ????????? ??????????????? a-????? ???? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ??????????? (1871-1937) ??????? (1907).

????????? [ ???????? ]

?????? ????? ????? 23 ??? ???????. ????, ?????? ????????????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????. ???? ????????? ???? ????. ????????? ????? ?????????????????? ???????????? ??????????????. ????????? ?????? ????????? ???????????????? ?????? ????. ?????????? ????? 0.0005???????? ? ???? ????????? ???? , ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????????????? ???? ?????????????. ???????? ?????????????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ??????????? ???? ??????????? ???? (??. 7.6%). ??????? ??????????? ???????? ???? ????? ?????????? ????.

??????????? [ ???????? ]

????, ????? ????? ???? ????? ???????? ????. ????????? ?????????????. ???????????? ??????????????? ???????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ???????????. ?????????? ???? ??????????? ????? ??????????? ???? ????.

-270.97 ⁰ ?? ???? ???????????? ???? ??????? ???????? ????????? ?????????. ??? ???? ????? ??????????? ???????????????? ( ?????????????? ). ???? ??????????? ????? ?????????? ? ???? ????????????? ????????????? ?????? ?????????? ???? ???????? ?????????????. ? ???????? 4He ???? ??????? ????? (He I, He II) ??????????? ?????????. 4He? ????????????? ?????? ??????????? ????? ???????????? ?????? (1894-1984) ??????? (1938) ^[??] 3He???????? ?????? ??? ??, ???????? ?? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ??? ???????? ?????????????? ?????????????.

???????? [ ???????? ]

??? ???? ?? ????????????? ???????? , ???????? , ????????? ??????? ?????? ????????????? ????????? ???????????. ???? ?????????????? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???????.

???????????? ????? ?????????????? ???? ????? ?????? ??? (?????) ??????????; ?????? ?????????? ???? ?????????????? ????????????? (????: ???? ?????????? ?????????? ??? ????); ??? ???????????? ??????????????? ??????? (?????????) ????????; ^[??] ???????? ???????????? ?????????????; ???? ?????? ?????? ????????????? (???: ?????? ???????, ????? ?????) ??????? ???? ????. ??????? ????????????? ????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????????????? ????.

????????? [ ???????? ]

↑ Kochhar, R. K. (1991). "French astronomers in India during the 17th ? 19th centuries". Journal of the British Astronomical Association . 101 (2): 95?100. Bibcode : 1991JBAA..101...95K .
↑ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 175?179. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5 .
↑
In his initial report to the French Academy of Sciences about the 1868 eclipse, Janssen made no mention of a yellow line in the solar spectrum. See:
- Janssen (1868) "Indication de quelques-uns des resultats obtenus a Cocanada, pendant l'eclipse du mois d'aout dernier, et a la suite de cette eclipse" (Information on some of the results obtained at Cocanada, during the eclipse of the month of last August, and following that eclipse), Comptes rendus ... , 67 : 838?839.
- Wheeler M. Sears, Helium: The Disappearing Element (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2015), p. 44.
- Francoise Launay with Storm Dunlop, trans., The Astronomer Jules Janssen: A Globetrotter of Celestial Physics (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2012), p. 45. However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that : "Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here." (See: (Launay, 2012), p. 45.)
↑ Lockyer, J. N. (October 1868). "Notice of an observation of the spectrum of a solar prominence" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 17 : 91?92. Bibcode : 1868RSPS...17...91L . doi : 10.1098/rspl.1868.0011 . JSTOR 112357 . S2CID 163097539 . Retrieved 3 June 2018 .
↑ Hampel, Clifford A. (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements . New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 256?268. ISBN 978-0-442-15598-8 .
↑ Harper, Douglas. "helium" . Online Etymology Dictionary .
↑ Thomson, William (August 3, 1871). "Inaugural Address of Sir William Thomson" . Nature . 4 (92): 261?278 [268]. Bibcode : 1871Natur...4..261. . doi : 10.1038/004261a0 . PMC 2070380 . Archived from the original on December 2, 2016 . Retrieved February 22, 2016 . Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium
↑ Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D ₃, One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 58 (347?352): 65?67. Bibcode : 1895RSPS...58...65R . doi : 10.1098/rspl.1895.0006 . S2CID 129872109 .
↑ Ramsay, William (1895). "Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part I" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 58 (347?352): 81?89. Bibcode : 1895RSPS...58...80R . doi : 10.1098/rspl.1895.0010 .
↑ Kapitza, P. (1938). "Viscosity of Liquid Helium below the λ-Point" . Nature . 141 (3558): 74. Bibcode : 1938Natur.141...74K . doi : 10.1038/141074a0 . S2CID 3997900 .
↑ Rose, Melinda (October 2008). "Helium: Up, Up and Away?" . Photonics Spectra . Archived from the original on 22 August 2010 . Retrieved 27 February 2010 . For a more authoritative but older 1996 pie chart showing U.S. helium use by sector, showing much the same result, see the chart reproduced in "Applications" section of this article.

?????? ???????? [ ???????? ]

Helium at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
Helium at the Helsinki University of Technology ; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4
Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics ? includes a summary of some low temperature techniques
Video: Demonstration of superfluid helium (Alfred Leitner, 1963, 38 min.)

[frnch-1] Kochhar, R. K. (1991). "French astronomers in India during the 17th ? 19th centuries". Journal of the British Astronomical Association . 101 (2): 95?100. Bibcode : 1991JBAA..101...95K .

[nbb-2] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 175?179. ISBN 978-0-19-850341-5 .

[3] In his initial report to the French Academy of Sciences about the 1868 eclipse, Janssen made no mention of a yellow line in the solar spectrum. See:
Janssen (1868) "Indication de quelques-uns des resultats obtenus a Cocanada, pendant l'eclipse du mois d'aout dernier, et a la suite de cette eclipse" (Information on some of the results obtained at Cocanada, during the eclipse of the month of last August, and following that eclipse), Comptes rendus ... , 67 : 838?839.

Wheeler M. Sears, Helium: The Disappearing Element (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2015), p. 44.

Francoise Launay with Storm Dunlop, trans., The Astronomer Jules Janssen: A Globetrotter of Celestial Physics (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2012), p. 45. However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that : "Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here." (See: (Launay, 2012), p. 45.)

[4] Janssen (1868) "Indication de quelques-uns des resultats obtenus a Cocanada, pendant l'eclipse du mois d'aout dernier, et a la suite de cette eclipse" (Information on some of the results obtained at Cocanada, during the eclipse of the month of last August, and following that eclipse), Comptes rendus ... , 67 : 838?839.

[5] Wheeler M. Sears, Helium: The Disappearing Element (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2015), p. 44.

[6] Francoise Launay with Storm Dunlop, trans., The Astronomer Jules Janssen: A Globetrotter of Celestial Physics (Heidelberg, Germany: Springer, 2012), p. 45. However, subsequently, in an unpublished letter of 19 December 1868 to Charles Sainte-Claire Deville, Janssen asked Deville to inform the French Academy of Sciences that : "Several observers have claimed the bright D line as forming part of the spectrum of the prominences on 18 August. The bright yellow line did indeed lie very close to D, but the light was more refrangible [i.e., of shorter wavelength] than those of the D lines. My subsequent studies of the Sun have shown the accuracy of what I state here." (See: (Launay, 2012), p. 45.)

[Lockyer_1868-4] Lockyer, J. N. (October 1868). "Notice of an observation of the spectrum of a solar prominence" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 17 : 91?92. Bibcode : 1868RSPS...17...91L . doi : 10.1098/rspl.1868.0011 . JSTOR 112357 . S2CID 163097539 . Retrieved 3 June 2018 .

[enc-5] Hampel, Clifford A. (1968). The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements . New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. pp. 256?268. ISBN 978-0-442-15598-8 .

[6] Harper, Douglas. "helium" . Online Etymology Dictionary .

[7] Thomson, William (August 3, 1871). "Inaugural Address of Sir William Thomson" . Nature . 4 (92): 261?278 [268]. Bibcode : 1871Natur...4..261. . doi : 10.1038/004261a0 . PMC 2070380 . Archived from the original on December 2, 2016 . Retrieved February 22, 2016 . Frankland and Lockyer find the yellow prominences to give a very decided bright line not far from D, but hitherto not identified with any terrestrial flame. It seems to indicate a new substance, which they propose to call Helium

[8] Ramsay, William (1895). "On a Gas Showing the Spectrum of Helium, the Reputed Cause of D ₃, One of the Lines in the Coronal Spectrum. Preliminary Note" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 58 (347?352): 65?67. Bibcode : 1895RSPS...58...65R . doi : 10.1098/rspl.1895.0006 . S2CID 129872109 .

[9] Ramsay, William (1895). "Helium, a Gaseous Constituent of Certain Minerals. Part I" . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London . 58 (347?352): 81?89. Bibcode : 1895RSPS...58...80R . doi : 10.1098/rspl.1895.0010 .

[10] Kapitza, P. (1938). "Viscosity of Liquid Helium below the λ-Point" . Nature . 141 (3558): 74. Bibcode : 1938Natur.141...74K . doi : 10.1038/141074a0 . S2CID 3997900 .

[11] Rose, Melinda (October 2008). "Helium: Up, Up and Away?" . Photonics Spectra . Archived from the original on 22 August 2010 . Retrieved 27 February 2010 . For a more authoritative but older 1996 pie chart showing U.S. helium use by sector, showing much the same result, see the chart reproduced in "Applications" section of this article.

[?]

[?]

[?]

[?]

[?]

[?]

[?]

[?]

[?]

[??]

[??]