???????

?? ???? (?????) ?? ???? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ?? ???? ' ??????? (????????) ??? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ??? , ??????????? ??? ?? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ?????

??? ????????? ??? ??? ?? ??? [ ??????? ???? ]

	??? (Pa)	??? (Torr)	mean free path	????? cm ³??? ????? ?? ??????
Vacuum cleaner	approximately 80 kPa	600	70 nm	10 ¹⁹
liquid ring vacuum pump	approximately 3.2 kPa	24
freeze drying	100 to 10 Pa	1 to 0.1	100μm	10 ¹⁶
rotary vane pump	100 Pa to 100 mPa	1 to 10 ^?3	100μm to 10 cm	10 ¹⁶-10 ¹³
Incandescent light bulb	10 to 1 Pa	0.1 to 0.01	1mm to 1 cm	10 ¹⁴
Thermos bottle	1 to 0.01 Pa ^[1]	10 ^?2 to 10 ^?4	1 cm to 1m	10 ¹²
Earth thermosphere	1 Pa to 100 nPa	10 ^?3 to 10 ^?10	1 cm to 1000 km	10 ¹⁴ to 10 ⁶
Vacuum tube	10 μPa to 10 nPa	10 ^?7 to 10 ^?10
Cryopumped MBE chamber	100 nPa to 1 nPa	10 ^?9 to 10 ^?11	1..10 ⁵ km	10 ⁹-10 ⁴
Pressure on the Moon	approximately 1 nPa	10 ^?11		4 X 10 ⁵^[2]
Interplanetary space				10 ^[1]
Interstellar space				1 ^[3]
Intergalactic space				10 ^?6^[1]

??????? ?? ???????? [ ??????? ???? ]

??? ?? ???? (????) ?? ???? ?? ????
??? ?? ????	??? hPa (mbar)	??? ????? ???? ³	????? ?????? ??
??????? ???	1013,25	2,7 · 10 ¹⁹	68 nm
????? ???????	300…1	10 ¹⁹…10 ¹⁶	0,1…100 μm
????? ???????	1…10 ^?3	10 ¹⁶…10 ¹³	0,1…100 mm
???? ??????? (HV)	10 ^?3…10 ^?7	10 ¹³…10 ⁹	100 mm…1 km
??????? ???? ??????? (UHV)	10 ^?7…10 ^?12	10 ⁹…10 ⁴	1…10 ⁵ km
??? ???? ??????? (XHV)	< 10 ^?12	< 10 ⁴	> 10 ⁵ km
????? ??????? (IV)	0	0	∞

??????? ?? ??? [ ??????? ???? ]

?????? ?? ??? c ????? ??? ?????? ?? ??? c ?? ?? ?????? ???? ??? c ₀ $\ {\overset {\underset {\mathrm {def} }{}}{=}}\$ 299,792,458 m/s; ?????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???
??????? ?????? (Index of refraction) n ?? ??? 1.0?? ?? ?????? ???? ??; ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ???? ???
Electric permittivity (ε) approaches the electric constant ε ₀ ? 8.8541878176x10 ^?12 farads per meter (F/m).
Magnetic permeability (μ) approaches the magnetic constant μ ₀ $\ {\overset {\underset {\mathrm {def} }{}}{=}}\$ 4π×10 ^?7 N/A ².
Characteristic impedance ( η ) approaches the characteristic impedance of vacuum Z ₀ ? 376.73 Ω.

??????? ?? ????? [ ??????? ???? ]

?? ??????? (??? ???????) - ? ??? ?? ? ??????????? ??? ??

???????? ??????????
??????? ??????
????? (?????????)
????? ?? ??? ??????? (????????)
??????? ?????? (???? ?????????????) ?? ????????????
????

10-4 ??? ??? ?? ?????

???????, ????????, ????????, ??? ??????????, ???????? ??? ?????????? ??? ?????? ???? ???
??????? ????, ????? ??????? ??? ???????? ??????????? ???

( ????? ??????? (Freeze-drying) ????????? ???? ???????, ???????????? ???????, ????? ??? ????-???????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???????? ???? ??? ?????-?????? ??? ???? ?? ?????-????? ????????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??? ???? ???????????? ?? ?? ???????? ???? ?? ????)

10-6 ??? ??? ?? ?????

??????????? (??? ????? ???) ?? ????
??????? ?????? (??????????) ?? ????
?????? (????????), ???? ??????-?????, ????-???? ????? ?? ????
???-????? ?????? ?? ???? (????????????, ????????? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????)
???-?????????????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?????
???????? ??? ?? ???????? ?? ??????? ???
- ?????????? ???????????? (???? 10-6 ??? ???)
- ?? ????? ?? ??? ???? ???, ???? ?? ???? ?????????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ???
- ????? ????????

10-9 ??? ??? ?? ?????

??????? ??????
???????????? ()thermonuclear ????? ???????? ?? ??????
?????????? ?????
????? ??? ???????????? (field ion microscopes)
????? ???????? ???????????? (field emission microscopes)
???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ????
????? ?????? ?? ????? ?? ???????
??????-?? (clean-surface studies) ?? ??????

??????? ???????????? ?? ??????? [ ??????? ???? ]

??????? ???????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ??? ??-

??????? ?? ????????? ??????????????? ?? ????? ?? ???????
????	??????????	????????? ?? ?????
1643	Evangelista Torricelli	760 ???? ???? ?????? ??? ???????
1650	Blaise Pascal	????? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????????
1654	Otto von Guericke	?????? ??????? ????? ????????? ?? ????????
1662	Robert Boyle	????? ????? ?? ???- ???? ????
1679	Edme Mariotte	????? ????? ?? ???- ???? ????Ley presion-volumen de los gases ideales
1775	Antoine Lavoisier	O ₂ ?? N ₂ ?? ??-?? ??? ?? ???? ??? ???
1783	?????? ???????	????? ?? ?????? ?????????
1802	Jacques Charles- J. Gay Lussac	??????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ; ????? ????? ?? ????-?????? ????
1803	William Henry	????? ?? ????
1810	Medhurst	??????? ?? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? ????????
1811	Amadeo Avogadro	??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??; ??? ????? ?? ? ?????? ??????? ??? ?? ??? ?? ??.? ???? ????? ????? ???
1850	Geissler y August Toepler	Bomba de vacio mediante columna de mercurio
1859	????? ?????? ????????	????? ????? ??? ???-????? ?? ??????
1865	Hermann Sprengel	?????????? ?? ????
1874	Herbert G. McLeod	???????? ?? ???????????
1879	Thomas Alva Edison	?????? ????????? ???? ???????? ????? ?? ????????
1879	William Crookes	????? ???? ?????
1881	Johannes van der Waals	????????? ?? ???????? ????? ?? ??????
1893	James Dewar	Aislamiento termico bajo vacio
1895	Wilhelm Rontgen	???? ????
1902	John Ambrose Fleming	??????? ?????
1904	Arthur Wehnelt	???????-????? ?????
1905	Wolfgang Gaede	?????? (?????) ??????? ????
1906	Marcello Pirani	Vacuometro de conductividad termica
1907	Lee De Forest	??????? ???????
1909	William Coolidge	??????? ???????? ????
1909	Martin Knudsen	El flujo molecular de los gases
1913	Wolfgang Gaede	????? ??????? ????
1915	William Coolidge	??-???? ?????
1915	Wolfgang Gaede
1915	Irving Langmuir	?????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ???
1916	Irving Langmuir	???? ?? ????? ????? ????
1916	Oliver Ellsworth Buckley	???? ????? ??????? ???
1923	F. Holweck	????? ????
1935	W. Gaede	?????? ???? ??? ???-?????? (ballast)
1936	Kenneth Hickman	??? ????? ????
1937	F. M. Penning	????? ????? ?????????? ????????
1950	R. T. Bayard y D. Alpert	??? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ???
1953	H. J. Schwarz, R. G. Herb	????? ????

?????? ?? ????? [ ??????? ???? ]

????? ??????? [ ??????? ???? ]

↑ ^? ^? ^? ??????? ??????: <ref> ?? ??? ??????; chambers ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ???
↑ Opik, E. J. (May 1962), "The Lunar Atmosphere", Planetary and Space Science , Elsevier, 9 (5): pp. 211?244, ???????????? 0032-0633 , ????? : 10.1016/0032-0633(62)90149-6 |periodical= ?? |journal= ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ( ??? ) ????1 ??????: ????? ??? ( link ) .
↑ University of New Hampshire Experimental Space Plasma Group. "What is the Interstellar Medium" . The Interstellar Medium, an online tutorial . ??? ?? 17 ?????? 2006 ?? ????????? . ?????? ???? 2006-03-15 .

[chambers-1] ? ^? ^? ??????? ??????: <ref> ?? ??? ??????; chambers ??? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ???

[2] Opik, E. J. (May 1962), "The Lunar Atmosphere", Planetary and Space Science , Elsevier, 9 (5): pp. 211?244, ???????????? 0032-0633 , ????? : 10.1016/0032-0633(62)90149-6 |periodical= ?? |journal= ?? ?? ?? ???? ??? ??? ?? ??? ( ??? ) ????1 ??????: ????? ??? ( link ) .

[3] University of New Hampshire Experimental Space Plasma Group. "What is the Interstellar Medium" . The Interstellar Medium, an online tutorial . ??? ?? 17 ?????? 2006 ?? ????????? . ?????? ???? 2006-03-15 .

[1]

[2]

[3]