????? (??? ?????)

?????

???? ????? , ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???? ????????? . ???? ???? ???? ????????? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????

???? ????? ? ?????? ???? ??????? , ????? ???? ? ????????? , ??? ????? ? ???? ???? ??????????

????? ?? ????? (? ?????? ????? : πλ?σμα , ??? ????? ????) ??? ??? ? ???? ?????? ?? ????? (????? ? ???? , ???? ? ?? ). ????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ? ?????? ???????? (????? ????? ?????????? ??????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ? ???????? ??????), ???? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????, ??? ????????? , ???????? ? ????? ??????? (??????? ?? ???????? ), ???????? ????? ???? ? ???? ????????????? .

?????? ????????? ?? ????? ???? ??????? ^[1], ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ??????? ? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? . ?????? ????, ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ????????????, ???????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ????? ???????????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ??? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ???? ?? , ??? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ??? ????, ???? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ? ???? ????????????? .

?? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ????, ??? ?????? "????????????????", ???? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ?????, ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? , ??? ??? ?????? ????? ??????????? .

?????? ???? ????? ?????? ? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????, ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? (?????, ????? ??? ) ? ???? . ???? ?? ?? ????????? ?????????????? ?????? ???? ?????, ???? ?????? , ???? ?????????? , ???? ????????? , ???????? , ? ???? ????????? . ????? ???? ???? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ????, ? ????? , ? ???? ????? , ??????? ???????? ?? ? ????????? , ??? ? ????????? ?? ?????????? .

?????? ??????? ????????? ??????????? ????, ???? ????? ??? ? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????????????? , ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ??????? ????? . ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ????? ????????????, ? ?????? ??????? , ?????? ????? ????? ?????? ????? (???? ?????? ?????? ?? Z-Pinch ).

?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ?????? ???. ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??????????:

????? ?????? : ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??????? ?????? ??????, ??? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ?????. ????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????? (?????? ???? ????, ??????? ???? ???? ) ???? ????. ????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? "Λ"( ???? ).
??????????? ??????? : ?? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ?? ??????. ???? ????????????? ??????? ?? ??? ???????? ??? ?????? ??????, ??? ??? ???????? ???? ?????. ???? ???????? ?? ??????, ?????? ??? ???????????????.
?????? ?????? : ?? ?????? ?????????? ?????? (?????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ??????????) ????? ????? ??????? ?????????? ??? ?????????? ????????? ??????????. ???? ???????????? ???????????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????.

????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????? ????, ????? ???? ???? ????. ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ????? ????????, ??? ???????? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ????????????????? , ????.

???? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????: ???? ????
??????	????? ?????	????? ????
???? ?????	10 ^?6 (????? ??????) ?? 10 ² ( ??? )	10 ^?6 (???? ?????? ^[3]) ?? 10 ²⁵ ( ??????? ??? ?????? )
??? ???? ?????	10 ^?12 (????? ??????? ??????? ????? ) ?? 10 ⁷ ( ???? ???????????? )	10 ( ??????? ?????? ) ?? 10 ¹⁷ (????? ??? ?????? )
?????? ??????? ???? ?????	10 ⁷ ( ????????? ) ?? 10 ³² ( ????? ?????? ?????????? )	1 ( ???? ????????? ) ?? 10 ³⁰ (???? ?????? )
???????? ????? ??????	0~ ?????? ( ????? ??????????? ?????? ??????) ?? 10 ⁸ ?????? ( ????? ?????? ?????? )	10 ² ?????? ( ???? ????? ) ?? 10 ⁷ ?????? ( ???? ???? )
??? ????? ????	10 ^?4(????? ??????) ?? 10 ³ (????? ? ???? ????? )	10 ^?12 ( ???? ????????? ) ?? 10 ¹¹( ????? ????????? ^[5])

???? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??? ?????, ????? ?? ????? ???? ?????. ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ???????, ???? ????? ????? ?? ??? ? ???????? , ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? . ?? ?? ????? ?????, ???? ?? 1% ???????? ???????, ???? ??????? ?? ????? (????, ???? ????? ?????? ???? ?????). ???? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? α , ??????? ?? ??? $\alpha ={\frac {n_{i}}{n_{i}+n_{a}}}$ , ???? $n_{i}$ ??? ?????? ?????? ?? $n_{a}$ ?????? ??????? ?????????. ?????? ?????????? ????? ?? ??? $n_{e}=\langle Z\rangle n_{i}$ ???? $n_{e}$ ??? ?????? ??????????, ?? $\langle Z\rangle$ ??? ????? ?????? ????.

???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???????? ?????? ????? ? ????? ?????? ?? ? ??????? ???? , ???? ??? ? ?????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ???? ??????, ??????????? ?????? ?????????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ????? ??? (????? ?? ???? ?????????? ). ???? ??? ???? ?????? ?????????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? .

????, ?????????? ?????? ? ????? ???? ????????? ???? ????????? ???? ?????? ???. ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ???? ??????????? ??????? ????? ????, ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???? ??? ?????????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ????????? ?????????. ?????? ???, ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????????? ?????????? ???? ????? ????? ?????.

????? ????? ?????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?? ?? ????? ?????????? ??? ??????????, ?????? ????????, ???? ????? ????? ?"?????" ?? ?"?? ?????". ?????? ????? ????????? ?????????? ????????? ?????? ???? (????? ???????) ????, ????? ?? ??????????? ???? ?? ?? ??. ?????? ?? ????? ???????? ?????????? ???? ????????? ?????? ????????.

??????, ????? ????? "???" ?? ???? ?????? ??? ?????, ?"???" ?? ?? ??? ??? (???? 1%) ????????? ???????, ???? ?? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? ??????. ?? ?????? ??????? "???", ???????? ?????????? ????? ???? ????? ????? ??????.

???????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????, ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????, ???? ? ???????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ????????. ????????? ?????? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ??????, ??? ???? ????? ???? ???? ????? ????, ????? ???????? ?????? ?? ???????? ????? . ?????? ???????? ??????, ????????? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ???????? ????????? ??????, ?????? ?????? ???? . ????? ??, ?? ???? ???? ?? ????????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ????? . ????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? :

n_{e}\propto {\text{exp}}\left(e\Phi /k_{B}T_{e}\right)

???? $n_{e}$ ?????? ??????????, $e$ ???? ????????, $\Phi$ ????????? ??????, $k_{B}$ ???? ?????? , ?? $T_{e}$ ???????? ??????????. ?? ??? ????? ??? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ???????:

\left|{\vec {E}}\right|=\left|-\nabla \Phi \right|=\left(k_{B}T_{e}/e\right)\left(\Delta n_{e}/n_{e}\right).

??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?? ? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ?? ???????? ??????? ????? ??????? . ???????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?????? ???, ????? ω _ce/v _e > 1, ???? ω _ce ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????????, ??ν _e ??? ????????? ???????? (??? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???????). ?????? ????, ?????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ??????? ????, ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ?????????? ???? ??????. ????? ??????? ??? ???????????? , ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ??.

?????? ??? ???? ????? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ????? ?????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????? , ????? ?????, ???? ???. ????? ???, ????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ????? ???????, ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ??? ??? ??????, ??????:

?????	??	?????
??????? ??????	????? ???? : ??????, ????? ??? ????? ?????, ?????? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ?? ??? 30 ????? ???? ????.	????? ???? : ????, ???? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ???????, ??? ??????? ????????.
???? ??????? ???????	??? : ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ????? ???, ???????? ???? ? ????? ??????????? ???? ???? ????.	????? ?? ???? : ?????????, ?????, ???????? ?????????? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ??????, ???? ?????? ????? ???????? ?????, ???? ?????? ?? ????????. ??? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ?? ??????, ??? ???? ????????????, ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????.
??????? ?????????	????????????? : ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ??? ?????????? ??? ????????, ???? ?????? ???????? ??????????? ?? ?????? ????????.	???? ?? ??????????? : ???????????? ???????? ??? ???? ???????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????, ??????????? ??? ???????? ?????? ??? ????, ??????? ????. ?????, ???? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????, ????? ???.
???????????	???????? : ??????? ??? ??? ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ???????, ?????????? ??? ????? (?? ????) ??????? ?????? ????.	???????? : ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????, ?????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??? ????? ??????, ?????? ??? ?????????? ?????????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????.

???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ????? ??????? ? ?????? ????? , ???????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? 1879 . ???? ?? ????? ???????? ?????, ????? ??????? ? ?????? ?????? , ???? ???? ??? ?? ??? ???????? ?????? ?'?? ?'?? ?????? ???? 1897 . ??? "?????" ????? ?? ??? ???????? ???????? ???? 1928 , ????? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ???????, ????? ????? ? ????? ??? .

???? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????, ???? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?????, ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????. ?????? ????? ???? ?????????? ????????????? ? ??? , ?????? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ???? ????. ?????? ??????? ?????????, ?????????? ??? ??????? ????.

????? ??????? ???? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????? ?? ????? ????
????? ?????	????? ????
???? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??? ????? ????? ????? ? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????????? ????????, ?????? ? ????????? ?? ?????????? ?? ???? ?????	???? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ? ???? ??????????? (???? ??? ????? ???? ) ? ???? ?????????? (???? ??? ?????? ) ? ???? ?????????? (???? ??? ??????? ) ?????? ????? ???????? ???????????

????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? . ?????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? . ?????, ?????? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ????????, ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ?????????? ??? ??? ????? ??????. ???? ??????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??????? ?????.

????? ?????? ???????? ?? ????? ????????
????? ???????/?????	????? ???????? ????	????? ? ???? ????? ?? ???????
??? ????? ????? ????????????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? ? ??????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? (Plasma spraying) ????? ? ????? ????? ??????? ????? (???? ????? ??? ?????? ) ????? ????? ^[7] ?????????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????? ? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ????? ^[8]	???? ????? ?????? , ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ?????? ?????????? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??????? ???? ?????	????? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ???? ? ????????? ( ???? ?????? )

?????? ??????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ?????? ?????, ?????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???????? ? ???? ?????? ??????. ???? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????, ????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????. ???? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ??????.

????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????????? ??? ???????? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ( ???????? ), ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????, ??? ???? ????? , ??? , ???? ????? , ??? ?????? , ??????? ?????? ? ????? ???????? . ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????, ???????????? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ?? ??? ??????? . ????????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ? ????? ?????? .

????? ????? ?????????? ???? ??? ??? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????. ? ?????? ??????, ???? ??????????? ? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ????? ??????, ???? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ????, ????? ? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ????. ?????? ??????? ????? ?????, ?? ???? ????? ???? ??1, ?????? ?????? ?? ??????. ???? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ????????? ??????????.

??? ??? ?? ????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ) ????? ???? ??????? ???????? ?? ??? (??????) ?? ???? ????? (??????). ?????? ?????? ??????? ?????????? ??????, ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ?????? ?????, ??? ?? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ?????. ????? ?????? ??????? ??? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ????????? ?????, ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? .

???? ??????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ????????????????? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ??????. ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??????? ? ?????? . ?? ??????? ??????? ??? ??????? ??????? ??????, ???? ???????? ??? ???? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ????. ?????? ???? ?????????????? ?? ???????? ?? ???????? ???????. ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??????? (??????), ????? ?????? ????? ???????, ???? ?????? ?????????? ??????, ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ??????? ??????. ??? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ? ???? ???? .

???? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ???? ???? ????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??? ??????? , ?????? ? ???????? , ?????? ?????? ??? ????? ????????. ??????? ??? ???? ????? ???? ? ?????????? ?? ????????? .

?????? ????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ? ????? ??????? ??? ??????? ?????? ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???????, ??? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? . ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ???????? ??????, ????? ${\tfrac {1}{2}}mv^{2}=eV_{\text{ion}}$ , ???? $eV_{\text{ion}}$ ??? ???????? ??????, $m$ ????, ?? $v$ ??????? ??????.

????? ?????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ?????????? ????? ? ?????? ???????????? , ?? ???? ????? ? ????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ???????? ????????? ?? ???? ?????? ?????? , ?????? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????????? ?????????? ?????????.

????? ??????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??????????? ??? ????? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ???, ?? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ????????? ??????? ????? ????, ??????? ?? ????????, ???????? ??????. ???? ?? ????? ????? ???????? ???? ???, ?? ???? ???????? ???? ???. ??????? ???? ????? ? ????? ??????? , ?????? ????? ????.

????? ??? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

????? ??? ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?????? ?????, ????? ?? ????????? ?? ????????, ??????? ??? . ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????, ??????? ????? ????? . ????? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ?????????, ?????? ????, ? ???????? ?? ???? ???? , ????? ?????? ???????? ???????.

????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???????, ?? ???? ?????? ?????? ???????? ?? ?? ????????, ??? ????? ?????? ??????? ??????. ??? ??, ?? ????? ??????? ? ??????? ?????? , ????? ???????? ? ??????? ?????? ???? ???? ????????????? ?? ? ?????? ?????? ???? ???? ???????????? . ????? ???, ???? ??? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???????? ??????, ????? ???? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????. ?????, ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????????, ????? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ????? ????. ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ????????? ???? ??? ????????, ???????? ????????? ????? ? ??????? ?????? ?????? , ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ?????????, ??? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???? ??????? ????????? ?? ????????. ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?????? ???????.

???? ?????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ?????? ?????????? ?? ????? ??????, ????? ???? ??????????? ???? (?????, ????? ????? ?????? ???????? ???????). ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ?????? ??? ????? . ?????? ???????? ????, ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ? ??????????? ?? ????? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ??????, ?????? ????? (Drift) ?? ????? ?????? ??.

???? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ??????? ????????? ?? ???????? ??? ????? ??????, ??????? ???????? ?????. ????? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ???????? ?? ????? ???? α (???? e ???? ????????? ?? i ???? ?????) $f_{\alpha }=\left({\vec {x}},{\vec {p}},t\right)$ , ???? ${\vec {x}}$ ?????, ${\vec {p}}$ ????, ?? $t$ ????.

???? ??? ????? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ?????. ????? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???????? ??????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ??????. ????? ??????, ?????? ????? ???? ?? , ????? ???? ????? ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ??????????????.

????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?????? ?????? , ?? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????????? ? ??????? ??????????? ????. ?????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ?????????? ??? ?????? ??????, ???? ?????? ?????? ? ?????? ???? ????? . ??? ????, ?? ??????? ??????? ???????? ????????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ???????????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? ????? (Self-consistent).

?????, ?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?? ???????????? (? ?????? cgs ):

{\frac {\partial f_{e}}{\partial t}}+{\vec {v}}_{e}\cdot \nabla f_{e}-e\left[{\vec {E}}+{\frac {1}{c}}\left({\vec {v}}\times {\vec {B}}\right)\right]\cdot {\frac {\partial f_{e}}{\partial {\vec {p}}}}=0

{\frac {\partial f_{i}}{\partial t}}+{\vec {v}}_{i}\cdot \nabla f_{i}-e\left[{\vec {E}}+{\frac {1}{c}}\left({\vec {v}}\times {\vec {B}}\right)\right]\cdot {\frac {\partial f_{i}}{\partial {\vec {p}}}}=0

\nabla \times {\vec {B}}={\frac {4\pi {\vec {j}}}{c}}+{\frac {1}{c}}{\frac {\partial {\vec {E}}}{\partial t}},~~\nabla \times {\vec {E}}=-{\frac {1}{c}}{\frac {\partial {\vec {B}}}{\partial {t}}}

\nabla \cdot {\vec {E}}=4\pi \rho ,~~\nabla \cdot {\vec {B}}=0

\rho =e\int \left(f_{i}-f_{e}\right)d^{3}p,~~{\vec {j}}=e\int \left(f_{i}-f_{e}\right){\vec {v}}d^{3}p,~~{\vec {v}}_{\alpha }={\frac {{\vec {p}}/m_{\alpha }}{\left[1+p^{2}/\left(m_{\alpha }c\right)^{2}\right]^{1/2}}}

???? $e$ ???? ? ??????? , $c$ ?????? ???? , $m_{\alpha }$ ??? ????? ???? $\alpha$ , ${\vec {E}}({\vec {r}},t)$ ?? ${\vec {B}}({\vec {r}},t)$ ????? ?????? ??????? ?????? ${\vec {r}}$ ???? $t$ , ??????.

???? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ????? ???????, ???? ??????, ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????. ???? ????? ????? ?????????????????? ?????? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????? ? ??????? ???????????? . ????? ???? ????, ?????? ??????????? ??????? ?????. ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ???? ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ?????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????, ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????? , ????? ?????? , ??????? ???? ???????? .

?????? ??????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ?????? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?????, ????? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????? ????? (?????? ??? ??????? ?????????? ????, ??? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ???? ????). ?????? ??????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ?????? ???????, ?? ??? ??? ????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ?????? ??????.

????? ????????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

?????? ??????????, ?????? ??????? ??? ???? ??? ????? ???, ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ???? ?????? ??????? ?????? ?? ????? ????? . ?????? ?????????? ????? ???? ???????? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????????? ?????? ????? ??????? ? ????????? , $f={\frac {qB}{2\pi m}}$ , ???? q ???? ??????, B ???? ??????, ?? m ??? ??????. ???? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ?????? , ?????????????.

??????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

CFD-ACE+
COMSOL
LSP
Magic
Starfish
USim
VizGlow
VSim

??? ????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

???? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ? ???? ??? ??????? (????? ?????) ???????? ?? 200,000,000 ????? ?????? . ?????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ^[9].

???? ?????? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ?????, ??????:

????? ? ?????????? ?????? ???????? ?????? ????' ???? ????? ^[10], ?????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?????? (Guide) ??????, ???? ?????????, ??????????? ??? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????.
????? ? ?????? ?????? ????' ???? ????? ^[11], ?????? ??? ???? ????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? (Electric discharges).
????? ? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ????' ???? ???? ^[12], ?????? ??? ???? ???????????? ?? ?????, ????? ?????????????? ????? (?????? ???? ?? Z-Pinch ????? ??????), ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????.

??? ?? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

??????? ???????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

Make Plasma With Grapes In The Microwave! , ????? ???? ?????? (????: 5:30) - ????? ????? ??????
????? , ???? ??????????? ???????? (???????)
????? (???? ???????) , ?? ??? ? ?????? ???????

????? ?????? [ ????? ??? ???? | ????? ]

^ ?????? ? ??????? ??? ?? ? ????? ????? , ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????, ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????.
^ Peratt, Anthony L. " Advances in numerical modeling of astrophysical and space plasmas ". Astrophysics and Space Science . 1996, Volume 242, Issue 1?2, pp 93?163
^ ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ? ????????? .
^ Ya. N. Istomin, D. N. Sobyanin. "Electron-positron plasma generation in a magnetar magnetosphere" . Astronomy Letters, October 2007, Volume 33, Issue 10, pp 660-672.
^ ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? , ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ? ???????? ^[4].
^ ??? ?? Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning
^ ?? ????, "?????? ??????? ????? ???" . ??????? , 2010
^ ??? ?????, ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? , ???? TheMarker ‏, 17 ????? 2013
^ 200 ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? , ????? ???? ??????? ???????
^ ????? ???????? . ??????????? ?????? ????????
^ ????? ?????? . ???????
^ Plasma-gate . ???? ????? ????

[1] ?????? ? ??????? ??? ?? ? ????? ????? , ??? ???????? ??????? ???? ???????, ?????? ??????? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ????.

[2] Peratt, Anthony L. " Advances in numerical modeling of astrophysical and space plasmas ". Astrophysics and Space Science . 1996, Volume 242, Issue 1?2, pp 93?163

[3] ???? ?????? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ????? ???? ? ????????? .

[4] Ya. N. Istomin, D. N. Sobyanin. "Electron-positron plasma generation in a magnetar magnetosphere" . Astronomy Letters, October 2007, Volume 33, Issue 10, pp 660-672.

[5] ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? , ?????? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ? ???????? ^[4].

[6] ??? ?? Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning

[7] ?? ????, "?????? ??????? ????? ???" . ??????? , 2010

[8] ??? ?????, ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? , ???? TheMarker ‏, 17 ????? 2013

[9] 200 ?????? ????? ?????? ????? ?????? ?????? ???????? , ????? ???? ??????? ???????

[10] ????? ???????? . ??????????? ?????? ????????

[11] ????? ?????? . ???????

[12] Plasma-gate . ???? ????? ????

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