???? ?????

????? ????? ? (?? ??????? : Dark Matter ) ??????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????????? ? ??????????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ????? ???. ????? ????? ?????? ?????? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ????? ≪?????≫ ?????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ??????? ?????? ???????? (????? ??? ) ?? ??? ????? ???????? ?????? ??????? ? ??? ??????? ???????? ???? ???? ????. ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???????. ^[?] ?? ???? ???? ? ????????? ????? ????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????????? ? ?? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ???? ? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????. ??? ???????? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ???? ? ?? ????? ??? ????????? ??????????? ? ?? ???-????? ????? ?? ???? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ????? ? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???????. ^[?]^[?] ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ? ????? ????? ? ????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ???????. ^[?]^[?]

????-??????????? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ??? ?????????? ???? ????? ???????? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ( ??????? ? ???? ????) ?? ????? ????. ??? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????? ????? ????? ?? ≪??? ?????≫ ?? ???????? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? ??????? ? ???? ?????. ?? ?? ?? ?????? ?? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ??? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????. ?? ???? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ??????? ???????? ????? ????????? ???? ??? ????? ^[?] ?? ??????? ?????????? ??????? ?????? ????? ???????? ???? ???????? ??????? ????? ???? ????? ? ??????? ???????????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ????. ???????????? ????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ??????? ???????? ????? ???????. ^[?]^[?] ??????? ???? ????? ??? ??? ?? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ??? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ???. ^[?]

????? ???? ????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ???? ?????????? ??? ????????? ???????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ????????? (???? ??????? : MOND ) ?? ????? ??????-?????-??????? (???? ??????? : TeVeS ) ????? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ????????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ??? ????? ?? ?????. ^[??]

???? ??? [ ?????? ]

???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ? ??????? ?????? ???? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ???? ?? ?? ?????? ???? ??????? ??? ????????? ? ?? ???? ?? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ? ????? ??? ?? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ( ???????? ? ??? ? ???? ????????????? ? ???? ????????????) ?? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ???. ^[?]

???????????????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ??? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ? ?? ?????? ???? ^[?] ?? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ? ????? ??????? ???? ??????? ?????. ??????? ??????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ????. ?????????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????? ??? ?????? ????????? ????. ^[?]

??? ?? ??????? ????????? ??????? ?? ?????????? ???????? ? ?????? ??? ????? ??????????? ??????? ?? ??????? ??????? ? ????? ???????-?????-????????-???? ? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???-????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ????? ??????. ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ( ??????? ) ???? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ???-????? ?? ????? ?????? ? ???? ?? ??? ?? ????? ????? ????? ???????. ^[??] ?? ??? ????? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ???-????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ???????? ? ????? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ????? ???. ^[?]

????? ????? ???? ????? ?? ???????? ?????? ????? ????????? ?????? ? ???????? ? ????? ????????? ???? ?????? ? ??????? ???? ??????????? ??? ?? ??? ??????????????? ?????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ????. ??? ??? ???? ????? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ???? ??? ?? ?? ????? ?????????????? ??????? ?????. ^[??]

????? ????? ??????? ? ?????????? [ ?????? ]

??????? ?????? ????? ???? ????? ???? ?? ????????? ?????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??????.

?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ????? ????? ?? ?????? (???? ?????? ???? ???????? ? ???????? ) ????? ????????:

????? ????????? ??????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ?????????? ?? ???????? ??????? ^[??] ????? ??????? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ??????. ?? ??? ????? ?????? ?? ?????? ????-????? ? ???? ??????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ?? ????? ???? ???? ????? ?? ??? ????.
???????? ????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?????? ? ?? ???? ????????? MACHO, EROS ? OGLE ???? ???????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ??? ???? ???? ??? ?? ????? ????? ????? (????? ??????????? ? ????????? ??????? ) ????? ?????
????? ???? ????????????? ( ?????????????? ) ?????????? ?? ???? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ? ??????? ????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???-??? ?? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ? ???????? ?????.

??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??????? ????: ????? ????? ????? ????? ??????? ????? ????? (?? ??????? : Massive Astronomical Compact Halo Objects ) ? ( ??????? MACHO )? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ????? ??????? ??? ???? ?????????????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ???. ?? ?????? ????????? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ??????? ????? ?????? ????? ???? ^[??] ?? ????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??? ???? ? ?? ????? ????? ??? ???????. ?????? ????????? ?? ???? ??????? ?????????????? ?? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ????. ???? ????? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????.

?? ????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ???? ????????? . ????????? ?? ???? ??????????? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ???? ????????? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????. ?? ???? ????? ????? ???????? ????? ????? ?????????? ???? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ???? ?????( ????????? ??????? ) ?????????? ^[?] ? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ??????? ???????. ????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ????? ???????? ????????? ?????? ??? ????? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ? ??? ????????? ???????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ????????? ????? ???? ???? ? ????????? ?????????(≪????????? ?????????≫). ^[??]

????? ????? ?????????? ?? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ???????? ?? ???????? ???? ??? ???? ????????? ???????. ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ????? ????? ??? (CDM)? ????? ????? ??? (WDM) ? ????? ????? ??? (HDM) ???? ?????. ???? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ?????????? ?????. ??? ????? ????? ?????????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??? ? ????? ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ????? ????? ??? ??? ??????? ? ??? ?? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ???? (WIMP) ???. ????? ????? ??? ???? ??? ???? ?????????? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ??? ????. ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ≪????? ?? ????≫ ? ?????? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????? ??? ???? ?? ????? ?????? ≪???? ?? ?????≫ ??????. ?? ????? ??? ???? ????? ????? ??? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ????? ????????? ????? ????? ?????? ???? ? ????? ???????. ^[?]

????? ????? [ ?????? ]

??? ?????? ???? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ???? ?? ??? ??????? ??? ??? ????? ??????. ^[??]

?????? ???? ?? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ????? ? ?????????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ????? ??????? ????????? ????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ?? ???????? ????????? ??????? ??? ? ???????? ?? ?? ??? ???? ???? ????. ^[??] ???? ????? ?????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ??????? ???? ??? ?? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ???????? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ????. ??? ??? ???? ??? ?? ??? ??????????? ?????? ????????. ^[??] ?? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ? ???????????? ?????? ?? ??? ??? ?? ????? ?????? ????????? ? ??????? ? ???????? ??????? ?? ?????? ???????? ?????????? ?????? ????. ^[??]^[??] ?????? ???? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??????? ???? (Coma) ?? ??? ??? ? ?????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ???????????. ?????? ??? ?? ???? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? ????????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ????? ?? ? ??? ????? ?? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???????? ? ????? ???? ?????? ????. ?? ????? ?? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??????????? ???? ????. ????? ?????????? ???? ???? ?? ??? ???? ????? ?????? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ??????? ??????? ????? ???????? ???? ?? ???? ????? ???. ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ??? ????? ?????? ??????. ?? ???? ??? ????? ?????? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????????? ?? ?? ??? ? ????? ???? ???? ??? ?????? ????????? ???? ?? ????? ???.

????? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????????? ???? ???????. ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??? ???? ??????? ????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????. ??????? ?? ??? ????? ????? ????? ?????????? ????? ????? ???: ?? ???? ??????? ??? ??? ???? ?? ??? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???????????? ???????? ?? ?? ???? ?????? ??? ????? ????????? ?? ????? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ???????? ??????? ?????. ????????? ????? ???? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ?? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ??????. ??? ????? ?? ???? ???? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ????? ??????????? ??? ????? ??? ????? ???. ???????? ?????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ?????? ?? ?? ???? ??????? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?? ????? ????? ?? ???? ?? ????? ??????? ? ???? ???? ???? ????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ?? ???? ????. ?????????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ?? ? ????? ???????? ???? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ??????? ???????? ???? ?? ??? ????????? ???? ???? ???? ?? ????? ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ??? ? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ???? ???? ??????? ????? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ???? ????? ?????.

??????? ??????? ?????? ???????? ??????? ????? ????? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?? ??? ?????????? ?? ?????? ????? ??????. ???????? ???? ???? (????? ?? ??????) ?? ???? ????? ???? ??? ??? ???????. ?? ????????? ????? ??? ???? ? ??????? ??????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ????????? ??????? ??????. ?? ???? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?????? ???? ?? ????? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? ?? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???? ????? ???? ???????. ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ????? ??? ?????? ??????? ??????? ?? ?? ???? ????????????? ?????? ???????? ???????. ^[??]

???????? ?????? [ ?????? ]

????? [ ?????? ]

↑ ^??? ^??? Trimble, V. (1987). "Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe" . Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics . 25 : 425?472. Bibcode : 1987ARA&A..25..425T . doi : 10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233 .
↑ Ade, P. A. R.; Aghanim, N.; Armitage-Caplan, C.; et al . (Planck Collaboration) (22 March 2013). "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific results ? Table 9" . Astronomy and Astrophysics (submitted) . 1303 : 5062. arXiv : 1303.5062 . Bibcode : 2013arXiv1303.5062P . Archived from the original on 23 March 2013 . Retrieved 30 April 2014 . {{ cite journal }}: Invalid |display-authors=30 ( help ) ; Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= ( help )
↑ Francis, Matthew (22 March 2013). "First Planck results: the Universe is still weird and interesting" . Arstechnica .
↑ ^??? ^??? "Planck captures portrait of the young Universe, revealing earliest light" . University of Cambridge. 21 March 2013 . Retrieved 21 March 2013 .
↑ Sean Carroll, Ph.D. , Cal Tech, 2007, The Teaching Company, Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe , Guidebook Part 2 page 46, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013, "...dark matter: An invisible, essentially collisionless component of matter that makes up about 25 percent of the energy density of the universe... it's a different kind of particle... something not yet observed in the laboratory..."
↑ First observational evidence of dark matter ??????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? Wayback Machine . Darkmatterphysics.com. Retrieved on 6 August 2013.
↑ ^??? ^??? ^??? Copi, C. J.; Schramm, D. N.; Turner, M. S. (1995). "Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis and the Baryon Density of the Universe". Science . 267 (5195): 192?199. arXiv : astro-ph/9407006 . Bibcode : 1995Sci...267..192C . doi : 10.1126/science.7809624 . PMID 7809624 .
↑ Bergstrom, L. (2000). "Non-baryonic dark matter: Observational evidence and detection methods". Reports on Progress in Physics . 63 (5): 793?841. arXiv : hep-ph/0002126 . Bibcode : 2000RPPh...63..793B . doi : 10.1088/0034-4885/63/5/2r3 .
↑ ^??? ^??? ^??? Bertone, G.; Hooper, D.; Silk, J. (2005). "Particle dark matter: Evidence, candidates and constraints". Physics Reports . 405 (5?6): 279?390. arXiv : hep-ph/0404175 . Bibcode : 2005PhR...405..279B . doi : 10.1016/j.physrep.2004.08.031 .
↑ ????? ????? . ????? ?????? ???? ?????.
↑ Jarosik, N.; et al. (2011). "Seven-Year Wilson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Sky Maps, Systematic Errors, and Basic Results". Astrophysical Journal Supplement . 192 (2): 14. arXiv : 1001.4744 . Bibcode : 2011ApJS..192...14J . doi : 10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/14 . {{ cite journal }}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= ( help )
↑ Siegfried, T. (5 July 1999). "Hidden Space Dimensions May Permit Parallel Universes, Explain Cosmic Mysteries" . The Dallas Morning News .
↑ Achim Weiss, " Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Cooking up the first light elements ??????????? ?? ? ????? ???? ???? Wayback Machine " in: Einstein Online Vol. 2 (2006), 1017
↑ Raine, D.; Thomas, T. (2001). An Introduction to the Science of Cosmology . IOP Publishing . p. 30. ISBN 0-7503-0405-7 . ^{^{[
????? ????
]}}
↑ Bertone, G.; Merritt, D. (2005). "Dark Matter Dynamics and Indirect Detection". Modern Physics Letters A . 20 (14): 1021?1036. arXiv : astro-ph/0504422 . Bibcode : 2005MPLA...20.1021B . doi : 10.1142/S0217732305017391 .
↑ "Serious Blow to Dark Matter Theories?" (Press release). European Southern Observatory . 18 April 2012.
↑ "The Hidden Lives of Galaxies: Hidden Mass" . Imagine the Universe! . NASA / Goddard Space Flight Center .
↑ Kuijken K. and Gilmore G. (1989). "The Mass Distribution in the Galactic Disc - Part III - the Local Volume Mass Density". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 239 : 651. Bibcode : 1989MNRAS.239..651K .
↑ Zwicky, F. (1933). "Die Rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen Nebeln". Helvetica Physica Acta . 6 : 110?127. Bibcode : 1933AcHPh...6..110Z .
↑ Zwicky, F. (1937). "On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae". ?????? ?????????? . 86 : 217. Bibcode : 1937ApJ....86..217Z . doi : 10.1086/143864 .
↑ Jorg, D.; et al. (2012). "A filament of dark matter between two clusters of galaxies". Nature . 487 (7406): 202. arXiv : 1207.0809 . Bibcode : 2012Natur.487..202D . doi : 10.1038/nature11224 . {{ cite journal }}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= ( help )

????? ?? ????? [ ?????? ]

???? ???? ????? ? ????? ?? ?? ?????? ?????????? ????? ???? ????? ^{^{[
????? ????
]}}

[Trimble_1987-1] ??? ^??? Trimble, V. (1987). "Existence and nature of dark matter in the universe" . Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics . 25 : 425?472. Bibcode : 1987ARA&A..25..425T . doi : 10.1146/annurev.aa.25.090187.002233 .

[planck_overview-2] Ade, P. A. R.; Aghanim, N.; Armitage-Caplan, C.; et al . (Planck Collaboration) (22 March 2013). "Planck 2013 results. I. Overview of products and scientific results ? Table 9" . Astronomy and Astrophysics (submitted) . 1303 : 5062. arXiv : 1303.5062 . Bibcode : 2013arXiv1303.5062P . Archived from the original on 23 March 2013 . Retrieved 30 April 2014 . {{ cite journal }}: Invalid |display-authors=30 ( help ) ; Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= ( help )

[wmap7parameters(a)-3] Francis, Matthew (22 March 2013). "First Planck results: the Universe is still weird and interesting" . Arstechnica .

[planckcam-4] ??? ^??? "Planck captures portrait of the young Universe, revealing earliest light" . University of Cambridge. 21 March 2013 . Retrieved 21 March 2013 .

[DarkMatter-5] Sean Carroll, Ph.D. , Cal Tech, 2007, The Teaching Company, Dark Matter, Dark Energy: The Dark Side of the Universe , Guidebook Part 2 page 46, Accessed Oct. 7, 2013, "...dark matter: An invisible, essentially collisionless component of matter that makes up about 25 percent of the energy density of the universe... it's a different kind of particle... something not yet observed in the laboratory..."

[6] First observational evidence of dark matter ??????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ???? Wayback Machine . Darkmatterphysics.com. Retrieved on 6 August 2013.

[Copi_1995-7] ??? ^??? ^??? Copi, C. J.; Schramm, D. N.; Turner, M. S. (1995). "Big-Bang Nucleosynthesis and the Baryon Density of the Universe". Science . 267 (5195): 192?199. arXiv : astro-ph/9407006 . Bibcode : 1995Sci...267..192C . doi : 10.1126/science.7809624 . PMID 7809624 .

[Bergstrom_2000-8] Bergstrom, L. (2000). "Non-baryonic dark matter: Observational evidence and detection methods". Reports on Progress in Physics . 63 (5): 793?841. arXiv : hep-ph/0002126 . Bibcode : 2000RPPh...63..793B . doi : 10.1088/0034-4885/63/5/2r3 .

[bertone_hooper_silk-9] ??? ^??? ^??? Bertone, G.; Hooper, D.; Silk, J. (2005). "Particle dark matter: Evidence, candidates and constraints". Physics Reports . 405 (5?6): 279?390. arXiv : hep-ph/0404175 . Bibcode : 2005PhR...405..279B . doi : 10.1016/j.physrep.2004.08.031 .

[10] ????? ????? . ????? ?????? ???? ?????.

[wmap7parameters-11] Jarosik, N.; et al. (2011). "Seven-Year Wilson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Sky Maps, Systematic Errors, and Basic Results". Astrophysical Journal Supplement . 192 (2): 14. arXiv : 1001.4744 . Bibcode : 2011ApJS..192...14J . doi : 10.1088/0067-0049/192/2/14 . {{ cite journal }}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= ( help )

[12] Siegfried, T. (5 July 1999). "Hidden Space Dimensions May Permit Parallel Universes, Explain Cosmic Mysteries" . The Dallas Morning News .

[13] Achim Weiss, " Big Bang Nucleosynthesis: Cooking up the first light elements ??????????? ?? ? ????? ???? ???? Wayback Machine " in: Einstein Online Vol. 2 (2006), 1017

[14] Raine, D.; Thomas, T. (2001). An Introduction to the Science of Cosmology . IOP Publishing . p. 30. ISBN 0-7503-0405-7 . ^{^{[
????? ????
]}}

[bertone_merritt-15] Bertone, G.; Merritt, D. (2005). "Dark Matter Dynamics and Indirect Detection". Modern Physics Letters A . 20 (14): 1021?1036. arXiv : astro-ph/0504422 . Bibcode : 2005MPLA...20.1021B . doi : 10.1142/S0217732305017391 .

[16] "Serious Blow to Dark Matter Theories?" (Press release). European Southern Observatory . 18 April 2012.

[17] "The Hidden Lives of Galaxies: Hidden Mass" . Imagine the Universe! . NASA / Goddard Space Flight Center .

[18] Kuijken K. and Gilmore G. (1989). "The Mass Distribution in the Galactic Disc - Part III - the Local Volume Mass Density". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society . 239 : 651. Bibcode : 1989MNRAS.239..651K .

[19] Zwicky, F. (1933). "Die Rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen Nebeln". Helvetica Physica Acta . 6 : 110?127. Bibcode : 1933AcHPh...6..110Z .

[20] Zwicky, F. (1937). "On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae". ?????? ?????????? . 86 : 217. Bibcode : 1937ApJ....86..217Z . doi : 10.1086/143864 .

[Nature_2012-21] Jorg, D.; et al. (2012). "A filament of dark matter between two clusters of galaxies". Nature . 487 (7406): 202. arXiv : 1207.0809 . Bibcode : 2012Natur.487..202D . doi : 10.1038/nature11224 . {{ cite journal }}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= ( help )

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