??????? ???????????

???????????? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ? ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ?????? ? ????? ???. ?? ???? ?????? ??????????? ?????? ?????? ?? ?? ????? ?????? ????????. ^[?] ?? ???? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? ?? ???? ??? (?????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ? ????) ????? ???. ?? ???? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ??????? ???? ?????? ????? ?????? ???? ????????. ???????? ??????????? ?? ???????????? (?????? ?????? ? ?? ????? ?? ???? ????? ???? ???? ?????.

?? ????? ?? ????? ??????? ?????? ??????? ??? ??????? ????? (Lederberg) ????? ???? ? ???? ??????????? ?? ???? ??? ???. ?? ?????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ??? ????? ????? ??? ? ?? ??? ????? ??????????? ?? ?? ???? ???? ??? ????? ?????. ?? ??? ????? ???? ??? ??????? ?? ???????? ??????????? ?????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ? ????? ?????? ????? ( FDA ) ????? ??? ?????? ??? ??? ????? ?? ????? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ??? ???? ??????.

?????? ?? ???? ?? ?????? ? ??????? ???????? ?????? ? ????????? ? ? ????????? ?????????? ?????? ? ???? ?????? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ?????????.

???????? ??????????? [ ?????? ]

??????????? ?? ????? ???????????? ?? ?????????? (zymurgy) ?? ???? ???. ?? ????? ??? ?? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?????? ??? ??? ??? ? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ?? ???????? ????? ??????? ?? ????? ???? ????. ^[?] ?? ???? ????? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ?????? ???? ??? ?????. ?????????? ????? ?????? ????? Carlsberg ??? ?? ?? ??? ???? ????? ??. ??? ???? Emil Christian Hansen ?? ??????? ???. ??? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???? ????? ????? ????? ????? ???. ?????? ???? ?????? ???? ????? ??? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ??? ???. ??? ?? ?????? ?????? Zymotechnic ? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??????? ?????? John Ewald Siebel ????? ?????.

???????????? ?? ??? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ??? ????? ????. ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ????? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ???? ????????? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????????????? ?????? ??? ???. ^[?] ??????? ????? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ????? ???? ???. ?? ??? ??????? ??????? ???? ???? ?????? ?? ?????? ???? ????? ???? ????? ????? ???? ???? ?????????? ?? ????? ??? ???? cordite ???? ??????? ????? ??? ?? ????? ??????? ???. ^[?] ????? ?? ??? ????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ?? ??? ????? ??? ? ???? ????? ?? ≪????????????≫ ???? ?? ???? ≪???????????≫ ??? ???.

?? ????? ????? ???? ????? ? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ?? ?? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?????????. ????? ?????? ????????? ????? ≪???????????≫ ?? ?? ??? ???? ?? ???????? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ?? ????? ????? ???? ??? ?? ??????? ?????? ????? ???. ?? ?? ???????? ???? ???? ??? ? ?????? ?? ?????? ????? ?? ????? ???? ????? ???? ? ?????? ??? ?? ?????? ??? ?? ??? ????. ??? ??????? ?? ??? ?? ???????? ? ??? ??????? ?????????? ???? ? ???? ?? ???? ????? ??. ?? ????? ?? ????? Biotechnologie, Ereky ?? ??? ?????? ?????? ?? ????????? ?? ??? ?? ?? ????? ? ????? ???: ??????????? ???? ?? ?????? ??? ??????? ???? ????????? ???????? ????? ????? ???? ????? ? ????? ???. ???? Ereky? ?????? "biotechnology" ??????? ?? ???? ?????? ?? ???? ?? ???? ??? ????????? ?? ???? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ?????. ^[?]

??????? ?? ??? ???? ?? ?? ??? ????? ??? ?? ???? ????? ???? ? ?? ????? ≪???????????≫ ???? ??? ???????? ?????? ?? ? ?? ???? ?? ???? ? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ??. ???? ????? ?? ??????? ?? ???? ???? ???????? ?? ????? ??? ????? ???? ????? ????? ?? ????? ?? ????? ????????? ???? ??????? ?????? ????? ?? ???? ?????? ???? ??????????? ??? ????? ???. Emil Siebel ? ??? ?????????? ?????? Zymotechnic? ?? ???? ???? ?????? ??? ?? ???? ??? ?? ??? ≪???? ???????????≫ (Bureau of Biotechnology)? ?? ????? ???. ??? ???? ?? ????? ??????????? ?????? ???????? ???? ????. ^[?]

??? ???? ?? ??????? ?? ?????? ????? ????????? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ????? ????? ??? ?? "???? chemurgic" ???. ^[?]

????????? ????? ?? ?????? ??????? ?? ??? ??? ??????? ?? ????? ?????. ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?????????? ????? ???. ?? ???? ????? ??? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ??? ??? ?? ???? ????? ?? ?????? ????? ? ?? ??????? ?? ?? ?????? ??????? ????? ?????. ^[?]

????? ????? ???? ? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ????? ?????? ????? ?? ??????? ???? ???? ????? ?????????? ?? ????????? ????? ?????? ???. ^[?] ??? ?? ????? ??? ??? ???????? ??????????? ????????? ??? ?? ??? ????? ????? ?? ???????? ??? ?? ?? ????? ???? ??. ^[?] ????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ?????? ???? ???? ?? ????? ???? ???? ? ?? ????? ???? ?????? ? ?? ????? ???? ?? ??????. ^[?] ?????? ? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ??????? ????? ?????? ??????????? ??? ???? ?? ?? ????? ??? ??????? ???? ??????. ^[?]^[??]

????? [ ?????? ]

↑ ^??? ^??? Bud, Robert; Cantley, Mark F. (1994). The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (1st ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 6, 7, 30, 133, 135, 138, 141?142, 155, 171?173, 165, 167, 174, 177, & 191. ISBN 9780521476997 .
↑ ^??? ^??? Thackray, Arnold (1998). Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 6?8. ISBN 9780812234282 .
↑ Sifniades, Stylianos; Levy, Alan B. (2000). Acetone . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a01_079 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .
↑ ^??? ^??? Fiechter, A.; Beppu, T. (2000). History of Modern Biotechnology I (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 153 & 170. ISBN 9783540677932 .
↑ Gordon, J. J.; Grenfell, E.; Legge, B. J.; Mcallister, R. C. A.; White, T. (1947). "Methods of Penicillin Production in Submerged Culture on a Pilot-Plant Scale" . Microbiology . 1 (2): 187?202. doi : 10.1099/00221287-1-2-187 . PMID 20251279 .
↑ Capek, Milantadra; Oldrich, Hanc; Alois, Capek (1966). Microbial Transformations of Steroids . Prague: Academia Publishing House of Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. doi : 10.1007/978-94-011-7603-3 . ISBN 9789401176057 . S2CID 13411462 .
↑ Leigh, H. M.; Meister, P. D.; Weintraub, A.; Reineke, L. M.; Eppstein, S. H.; Murray, H. C.; Peterson, D. H. (1952). "Microbiological Transformations of Steroids.1 I. Introduction of Oxygen at Carbon-11 of Progesterone". Journal of the American Chemical Society . 73 (23): 5933?5936. doi : 10.1021/ja01143a033 .
↑ Liese, Andreas; Seelbach, Karsten; Wandrey, Christian (2006). History of Industrial Biotransformations ? Dreams and Realities (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. doi : 10.1002/9783527608188.ch1 . ISBN 9783527310012 .
↑ Ohno, Masaji; Otsuka, Masami; Yagisawa, Morimasa; Kondo, Shinichi; Oppinger, Heinz; Hoffmann, Hinrich; Sukatsch, Dieter; Hepner, Leo; Male, Celia (2000). Antibiotics . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a02_467 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .
↑ Sandow, Jurgen; Scheiffele, Ekkehard; Haring, Michael; Neef, Gunter; Prezewowsky, Klaus; Stache, Ulrich (2000). Hormones . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a13_089 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .

[bud-1] ??? ^??? Bud, Robert; Cantley, Mark F. (1994). The Uses of Life: A History of Biotechnology (1st ed.). London: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 6, 7, 30, 133, 135, 138, 141?142, 155, 171?173, 165, 167, 174, 177, & 191. ISBN 9780521476997 .

[Thackray-2] ??? ^??? Thackray, Arnold (1998). Private Science: Biotechnology and the Rise of the Molecular Sciences . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 6?8. ISBN 9780812234282 .

[3] Sifniades, Stylianos; Levy, Alan B. (2000). Acetone . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a01_079 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .

[Fiechter-4] ??? ^??? Fiechter, A.; Beppu, T. (2000). History of Modern Biotechnology I (1st ed.). Berlin: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 153 & 170. ISBN 9783540677932 .

[5] Gordon, J. J.; Grenfell, E.; Legge, B. J.; Mcallister, R. C. A.; White, T. (1947). "Methods of Penicillin Production in Submerged Culture on a Pilot-Plant Scale" . Microbiology . 1 (2): 187?202. doi : 10.1099/00221287-1-2-187 . PMID 20251279 .

[6] Capek, Milantadra; Oldrich, Hanc; Alois, Capek (1966). Microbial Transformations of Steroids . Prague: Academia Publishing House of Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences. doi : 10.1007/978-94-011-7603-3 . ISBN 9789401176057 . S2CID 13411462 .

[7] Leigh, H. M.; Meister, P. D.; Weintraub, A.; Reineke, L. M.; Eppstein, S. H.; Murray, H. C.; Peterson, D. H. (1952). "Microbiological Transformations of Steroids.1 I. Introduction of Oxygen at Carbon-11 of Progesterone". Journal of the American Chemical Society . 73 (23): 5933?5936. doi : 10.1021/ja01143a033 .

[8] Liese, Andreas; Seelbach, Karsten; Wandrey, Christian (2006). History of Industrial Biotransformations ? Dreams and Realities (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. doi : 10.1002/9783527608188.ch1 . ISBN 9783527310012 .

[9] Ohno, Masaji; Otsuka, Masami; Yagisawa, Morimasa; Kondo, Shinichi; Oppinger, Heinz; Hoffmann, Hinrich; Sukatsch, Dieter; Hepner, Leo; Male, Celia (2000). Antibiotics . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a02_467 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .

[10] Sandow, Jurgen; Scheiffele, Ekkehard; Haring, Michael; Neef, Gunter; Prezewowsky, Klaus; Stache, Ulrich (2000). Hormones . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . doi : 10.1002/14356007.a13_089 . ISBN 978-3527306732 .

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