MONTENEGRO,
a country of south-eastern Europe, forming
an independent kingdom situated upon the western side of the
Balkan Peninsula, and possessing a small coast-line on the
Adriatic Sea. The name is the Venetian variant of the Italian
Monte Nero
, and together with the Albanian
Mal Esiya
, the
Turkish
Kara-dagh
, and the Greek
Mavro Vouno
, reproduces the
native, or Serb,
Tzrnagora
, “the Black Mountain”; it is derived
from the dark appearance of Mount Lovchen, the culminating
summit of Montenegro' proper, of which the northern and eastern
declivities, those which are viewed from the country itself, are
in shadow for the greater part of the day.
[1]
The dusky pine
forests, which once clothed the mountain and of which remnants
exist on its northern slope, contributed to its sombre aspect.
Up to the end of the 15th century, when its territory became
restricted to the mountainous districts immediately north and
east of Mount Lovchen, the kingdom was known as the Zenta
or Zeta, but the name Tzrnagora was probably used locally in
this region from the time of the earliest Slavonic settlements.
Montenegro extends between 41° 55′ and 43° 21′ N., and
between 18° 30′ and 20° E.; its greatest length from north to
south is about 100 m.; its greatest breadth from east
to west about 80 m. It is bounded by the Adriatic
on the S., the seaboard extending for 28 m.; by
the Primore, a strip of the Dalmatian littoral, on the S.W.
Area and Boundaries.
and W.; by the Austrian (formerly Turkish) provinces
of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the N.W. and N.; by
the Ottoman empire both in the sanjak of Novibazar, on
the N. and N.E., and also in the vilayets of Kossovo and
Scutari on the N.E., E. and S.E. Its area, as officially
estimated after the treaty of Berlin had been enforced in
1880, amounts to 3255 sq. m., or considerably less than half
the size of Wales. The present frontier, which was not finally
delimited till 1881, ascends the Boyana river from its mouth as
far as Lake Sass (Shas), then follows the river Megured to the
summit of Mount Bratovitza, reaching Lake Scutari at a spot
opposite the island of Goritza Topal. Crossing the lake north-east
to a point a little south-east of Plavnitza, and leaving the
territory of the Hoti and Klementi tribes to the south, and the
districts of Kutchka Kraina to the north, it passes north of
the districts of Plava and Gusinye and reaches the western end
of the Mokra Planina, where it turns to the north-west. After
crossing the Lim at its junction with the Skula, it coincides with
the old frontier for some distance; then reaching the Tara at
Maikovatz, it follows the course of that river to its junction with
the Piva: turning southwards, it reaches the old frontier once
more at Klobuk, and, passing between the district of Grahovo
and the Krivoshian Mountains, approaches to within a few miles
of the Bocche di Cattaro: then, following the maritime mountain
ridges for a considerable distance, it rejoins the coast a little
south of Spizza.
Physical Features
.?Montenegro, which forms the meeting-point
of the Dalmatian, Bosnian and Albanian ranges, seems at first a
mere chaos of mountains. It is, however, naturally divided into
three parts, each with its own character. (1) Fertile and well-watered
plains, not unlike those of Lombardy, border the river
Zeta, and after its junction with the Moratcha extend along the
course of that river to Lake Scutari. A fringe of similar lowland
forms the maritime plain extending between the Sutorman range
and the mouth of the Boyana. (2) Westward, under the shadow of
Lovchen, is the Katunska, or “Shepherds’ Huts,” the cradle of
Montenegrin liberty. This region presents a surface of hard crystalline
rock, bare and calcined, with strata sinking to the south-west
at an angle often of 70°. The rocks have been split by atmospheric
agencies into huge prismatic blocks, and the cracks have been
gradually worn into fissures several fathoms deep. In some places
the interior of the stony mass is hollowed out into galleries and
caves, some of great length; during the rainy season subterranean
landslips frequently produce local earthquakes, extending over an
area of 10 or 12 m. The small basins of Cettigne and Niegush are
practically the only cultivable districts in this region. (3) Over the
entire north stretch the massive mountain chains which link the
Herzegovinian Alps to those of Albania, the scenery recalling that
of Switzerland or the Tirol. In the north-west there are finely
wooded tracts extending north of Nikshitch to the Dormitor mountain
group. The Dormitor district contains rich grassy uplands
dotted with numerous small lakes, from which it derives its name
of Yezera (the lakes); the rivers Tara and Piva flow through magnificent
gorges clothed with rich forests, and unite near the extreme
north of the frontier. On the north-east are the high but rounded
Brda Mountains, covered with virgin forest or Alpine pastures,
and broken here and there by jagged dolomitic peaks. In the
district of the Vasoyevitchi, which surrounds the little town of
Andriyevitza, is the fine double peak of Kom, and, a little to the
south-west, the summit of Maglitch, commanding a magnificent
view over the wooded valley of Gusinye to the great Prokletia range
in Albania.
[2]
The contrast between the rich undulating landscape of
the northern regions and the sterile calcined rocks of Montenegro
proper is very remarkable.
The Montenegrin mountain system is divided into four masses: (1)
the group enclosed by the Tara and Piva rivers with Dormitor, one of
the highest mountains in the peninsula (9146 ft.), Yablonov
Vrkh (7113 ft.), and the Vrkhove Pochoratz (6601
ft.); (2) the group between the Zeta and the Moratcha
with Ostri-Kuk (7546 ft.), Vlasulya (7533 ft.), Brnik
Mountain System and Geological Formation.
(6860 ft.) and Maganik (6621 ft.); (3) the ranges between
the Moratcha and Tara with Sto (7323 ft.) and Gradishte (7156 ft.);
and (4) those between the upper Tara and the upper Lim with Kom,
the second highest mountain in the country (Kom Kutchki, 8032 ft.,
Kom Vasoyevitchki, 7946 ft.), separating the districts of the Vasoyevitchi
on the north-east from that of the Kutchi on the south-west,
and Visi tor (6936 ft.) on the frontier. In Montenegro proper the
only prominent summit is Lovchen (5653 ft.), between Cettigne
and the western frontier. Between Lake Scutari and the sea is the
Sutorman range with the fine pyramidal summit of Rumiya (5148 ft.)
overhanging Antivari. The prevailing formations of the north and
east are Palaeozoic sandstones and schists, with underlying trap
Throughout Montenegro the following have been identified: (1) Palaeozoic
schists, (2) Wirfen strata of Lower Trias, (3) Trap of the
Palaeozoic and Wirfen strata, (4) Triassic limestone, (5) Jurassic
limestone, (6) Cretaceous limestone, (7) Flysch, in part certainly
Eocene, (8) Neogenic or younger Tertiary formations.
|
Emery Walker sc.
|
The watershed between the Adriatic and the Black Sea crosses the
country from west to east in a very irregular line, the southern
districts being drained by the Zeta-Moratcha river
system, which finds its way to the Adriatic by Lake
Scutari and the Boyana, while the streams from the
northern districts form the headwaters of the Drina, which reaches
Rivers and Lakes.
the Danube by way of the Save. The Zeta, rising in Lake Slano,
near Nikshitch, is remarkable for its subterranean passage beneath
a mountain range 1000 ft. high. At Ponor, not far from that
town, the water vanishes in a deep chasm, reappearing at a
distance of several miles on the other side of the mountains.
Its whole course to its junction with the Moratcha is about
30 m. Rising in the Yavorye Planina, the Moratcha sweeps
through mountain gorges till it reaches the plain of Podgoritza;
then for a space it almost disappears among the pebbles and other
alluvial deposits, nor does it again show a current of any considerable
volume till it approaches Lake Scutari. In the neighbourhood
of Dukle
[3]
and Leskopolye it flows through a precipitous ravine from
50 to 100 ft. high. In the dry season it is navigable from the lake
to Zhabliak. The whole course is about 60 m. Of the left-hand
tributaries of the Moratcha the Sem or Tzem deserves to be mentioned
for the magnificent canon through which it flows between
Most Tamarui and Dinosha. On the one side rise the mountains of
the Kutchi territory on the other the immense flanks of the Prokletia
range?the walls of the gorge varying from 2000 to 4000 ft. of
vertical height. Lower down the stream the rocky banks approach
so close that it is possible to leap across without trouble. The Sem
rises in northern Albania, and has a length of 70 m. The Rieka
issues full-formed from an immense cave south-east of Cettigne and
falls into Lake Scutari. The three tributaries of the Drina which
belong in part to Montenegro are the Piva, the Tara, and the Lim,
respectively 55, 95 and 140 m. in length. The Tara forms the
northern boundary of the kingdom for more than 50 m., but the
Lim flows beyond the border after the first 30 m. of its course. The
western half of Lake Scutari, or Skodra, belongs to Montenegro;
the eastern, with Scutari itself, to Albania. It is a magnificent sheet
of water, measuring about 135 sq. m., with an average depth of two
to three fathoms. The northern end is studded with picturesque
islands. The level of Lake Scutari underwent several changes in
the 19th century; notably when the Drin, an Albanian river, which
before 1830 entered the Adriatic near San Giovanni di Medua,
changed its course so as to join the Boyana just below its exit from
the lake. This raised the level of the lake, flooding the lower valleys
of its tributary streams and permanently enlarging its area. A few
small lakes are scattered among the mountains, and it is evident
that their number was formerly much greater. Montenegro proper
(
i.e.
the departments of Katunska, Rietchka and Lieshanska) is
almost absolutely waterless, the only stream being the Rieka, which
probably drains the Cettigne basin by an underground outlet. Its
lower course is practically an inlet from Lake Scutari, and is navigable
up to the town of Rieka. The upland plain of Cettigne, now waterless,
was doubtless the bed of a lake at no very distant (geological)
period; it is still sometimes flooded after heavy rains. The scarcity
of water largely contributed to the successful defence of the country
against Turkish invasion: the few springs are hidden in deep crannies
among the rocks, and the inhabitants are accustomed to preserve
melted snow for use during the summer. On the other hand, the
Brda
[4]
and north-eastern districts are abundantly watered. The
maritime district possesses two small streams.
Climate
.?The climate generally resembles that of northern
Albania; it is severe in the higher regions, and comparatively mild in
the valleys, while in the maritime districts of Antivari and Dulcigno
it may be compared with that of central Italy. The mean annual
temperature is about 58° F. Snow lies for most of the year on many
heights, and in some of the darker gorges it is never thawed. The
high basin of Cettigne (2093 ft.) is deeply covered with snow during
the winter months, and the capital is sometimes almost inaccessible;
in summer the days are hot, but the nights are cool and frequently
chilly. The climate is generally healthy except in a few marshy
districts.
Flora and Fauna
.?The Alpine vegetation of the summits gives
way to pine forests in the sub-Alpine zone (about 6000 ft.); below
these the beech, and then the oak, the walnut, the wild pear, and
wild plum make their appearance; the fig-tree, the mulberry, and the
vine grow in the middle Zeta and Moratcha valleys, the myrtle,
orange, laurel and olive in the lower Moratcha region, and more
abundantly in the Tzrmnitza and maritime districts. In the forest
districts the beech is the prevailing tree up to a height of about
5000 ft. The chestnut forms little groves in the country between
the sea and Lake Scutari but never ascends more than 1000 ft.
Pomegranate bushes grow wild, and in many parts of the south
cover the foot of the hills with dense thickets, the crimson blossoms
of which are one of the special charms of the spring landscapes.
The leaves of the sumach (
Rhus cotinus
), which flourishes in the
warmer districts, are exported for use in dye-works; the
Pyrethrum
cinerariaefolium
supplies material for the manufacture of insect-powder;
the fruit of the wild plum (
Cornus mascula
), as well as the
grape, is employed for the production of
raki
or
rakiya
, a mild
spirit, which is a favourite beverage with the people. Bears are
still found in the higher forests; wolves, and especially foxes, over a
much wider area. A few chamois still roam on the loftiest summits,
the roebuck is not infrequent in the backwoods, the wild boar may
be met with in the same district, and the hare is abundant wherever
the ground is covered with herbage. There are one or two species
of snakes in the country, including the poisonous Illyrian viper
(
Vipera ammodytes
). Esculent frogs, tree frogs, the common tortoise,
and various kinds of lizards are all common. Scorpions and
numerous reptiles infest the arid rocks of the Katunska. The list
of birds includes golden eagles and vultures, twelve species of
falcons, several species of owls, nightingales, larks, buntings, hoopoes,
partridges, herons, pelicans, ducks (ten species), nightjars, &c.
Immense flocks of water-fowl haunt the upper reaches of Lake
Scutari. The rivers abound with trout, tench, carp and eels; the
trout of the Moratcha are especially fine. More important from an
economic point of view is the
scoranze
(
Leuciscus alburnus
:
Servian
uklieva
), a kind of sardine, which supplies an article of food
and merchandise to a considerable portion of the population. The
fish, which enter the Rieka inlet of Lake Scutari during the winter,
are taken with nets during a few weeks in the spring, when the fishing
season is inaugurated with a religious service; they are salted and
exported in large quantities to Trieste and the Dalmatian coast.
The annual take is valued at £4000. The sea-fisheries are of less
value. As regards mineral resources, traces of iron, copper and
coal are said to exist; there is a natural petroleum spring in the
neighbourhood of Virbazar.
Agriculture and Stock-farming
.?Except in the lowlands, which
serve as the granary of Montenegro, furnishing wheat, maize, barley,
rye, potatoes and capsicums, there is little tillage. Methods and
implements are alike primitive. In the Katunska the peasants are
glad to enclose the smallest spaces of the fertile red soil which is
left after rain in the crevices of the rocks, and one may see harvests
only a few yards square. The vineyards produce excellent grapes,
but wine production, which might become an important industry,
is at present limited to home consumption. Tobacco is largely
cultivated, especially in the neighbourhood of Podgoritza; the annual
produce amounts to 550,000 ?. Stock-raising is more largely carried
on than agriculture. In the north droves of swine fatten on the
mast of the beech woods; goats and large flocks of sheep, celebrated
for their thick fleeces, thrive on the high pastures, and the
lower slopes afford excellent grazing for larger stock. The native
breed of cattle is small, but among other efforts made to improve
it a stock-farm is maintained by Prince Nicholas near Nikshitch.
The horses, as elsewhere in the Balkan Peninsula, are diminutive,
wiry and intelligent. Bee-keeping is practised in the Kutchi
districts, and mulberries are grown for silkworms.
Commerce and Industries
.?The exports, valued at £80,265 in
1906, include cattle (large and small), smoked and salted meat
known as
castradina
, cheese, undressed hides,
scoranze
, sumach,
pyrethrum, tobacco and wool. The imports, valued in the same year
at £239,505, consist mainly of manufactured articles, such as iron
utensils and weapons, soap, candles, &c., and colonial products.
In 1904, when Montenegro renounced its commercial treaties, the
old 8%
ad valorem
duty levied on imports was in many cases raised to
25%. This caused much discontent among the people, who had been
growing steadily poorer since 1900; and many families emigrated.
The exportation of cattle is greatly hindered by the high tariff
imposed on the Austrian frontier, which is productive of much illicit
trading. There are practically no manufactures: the men disdain
industrial employment, while the women are occupied by household
duties or work in the fields. A brewery and a cloth factory,
however, exist at Nikshitch, a soda-water factory at Cettigne, and
an olive-oil refinery at Antivari. The coarser cloth worn by the
peasants is home-made; the finer kind worn by the wealthier class
is imported.
Communications
.?The progress of trade and the development
of the natural resources of the country must largely depend on
improved means of communication. In this direction considerable
progress has already been achieved. Montenegro possessed in 1907
228 m. of excellent carriage roads, admirably engineered and maintained.
The remarkable zigzag road from Cattaro to Niegush and
Cettigne was completed in 1881; it was afterwards prolonged to
Rieka, Podgoritza, Danilovgrad (where a fine bridge across the Zeta
was erected in 1870), and Nikshitch. Another road connects
Podgoritza with its port, Plavnitza, on Lake Scutari; a third runs
from Antivari to Rieka, and unites the sea-coasts with the richest
districts of the interior. The ports of Antivari and Dulcigno are
insufficiently sheltered, but are capable of considerable improvement;
both are places of call for the Austrian Lloyd steamers, and a
regular service between Antivari and Bari on the Italian coast is
maintained by the “Puglia” Steamship Company. The Boyana
is navigable by sea-going vessels as far as Oboti (12
1
/
2
m. from its
mouth), where cargoes from Scutari must be transferred to small
river craft. Important harbour works were inaugurated in 1905
at Antivari by the Italo-Montenegrin
Compagnia d’Antivari
, which in
the same year began the construction of a railway from that port
to Virbazar on Lake Scutari. Four steamers belonging to the same
company ply on the lake. Postal and telegraphic communication
is fairly complete. There were, in 1906, 16 post offices and 20
telegraph stations, with 412 miles of wire. The number of letters
posted in that year was 91,250. The telegraph is much used by the
people: the number of telegrams sent in 1906 was 54,750.
Population
.?In 1882 the population of Montenegro was estimated
as low as 160,000 by Schwartz. A more usual estimate
is 230,000. According, however, to information officially furnished
at Cettigne, the total number of inhabitants in 1900 was
311,564, of whom 293,527 belonged to the Orthodox Church;
12,493 were Moslems and 5544 were Roman Catholics; 71,528,
or 23%, were literate and 240,036, or 77%, were illiterate.
The total number in 1907 was officially given as 282,000. The
population is densest in the fertile eastern districts; Montenegro
proper is sparsely inhabited. Emigration is greatly increasing,
especially to America; the number of emigrants is given as 6674
in 1905 and 4346 in 1906. The bulk of the inhabitants belongs
to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race. There were
about 5000 Albanians resident in the country in 1900, besides a
small colony of gipsies, numbering about 800, a few of whom
have abandoned their nomadic life and settled on the soil. The
Moslems, whose thrift and industry have won encouragement
from the Crown, greatly decreased for some years after 1880
owing to emigration. The capital of Montenegro is Cettigne
(3200 inhabitants in 1900, 5138 in 1907). The chief commercial
centres are Podgoritza (12,347) and Nikshitch (6872), with the
ports of Antivari (2717) and Dulcigno (5166). These towns are
described under separate headings. Danilovgrad (1226) on the
Zeta was founded in 1871 by Prince Nicholas and named after
his predecessor, Danilo II. In the vicinity is Orialuka, the
prince’s palace, with its mulberry nurseries. Spuzh (1000), a
little lower on the east bank of the Zeta, possesses a fortified
acropolis. Niegush or Nyegosh (1893), on the road from Cettigne
to Cattaro, is the ancestral abode of the ruling family, which
originally came from Niegush in Herzegovina. Zhabliak (1200),
near Lake Scutari, was the capital until late in the 15th century.
It was a Venetian stronghold. Rieka (1768), near the northern
end of Lake Scutari, derives some commercial importance from
its position. Grahovo (1000), in the extreme west, is famous for
the Turkish defeats of 1851 and 1876. Other small towns are
Kolashin, Virbazar and Andriyevitza.
The Montenegrins present all the characteristics of a primitive
race as yet but little affected by modern civilization. Society
is still in that early stage at which personal valour
is regarded as the highest virtue, and warlike prowess
constitutes the principal, if not the only, claim to
pre-eminence. The chiefs are distinguished by the splendour of
National Character-istics.
their arms and the richness of their costume; women occupy a
subject position; the physically infirm often adopt the profession
of minstrels and sing the exploits of their countrymen like
the bards of the Homeric age. A race of warriors, the Montenegrins
are brave, proud, chivalrous and patriotic; on the other
hand, they are vain, lazy, cruel and revengeful. They possess
the domestic virtues of sobriety, chastity and frugality, and are
well-mannered, affable and hospitable, though somewhat contemptuous
of strangers. They are endowed in no small degree
with the high-flown poetic temperament of the Serb race, and
delight in interminable recitations of their martial deeds, which
are sung to the strains of the
gusla
, a rudimentary one-stringed
fiddle. Dancing is a favourite pastime. Two characteristic
forms are the slow and stately ring-dance (
kolo
),
[5]
in which women
sometimes participate, though it is usually performed by a circle
of men; and the livelier measure for both sexes (
oro
), in which the
couples face one another, leaping high into the air, while each
man encourages his partner by rapid revolver-firing. The
oro
is the traditional dance in the Katunska district. Women chant
wild dirges, generally improvised, over the dead; mourners try
to excel one another in demonstrations of grief; and funerals
are celebrated by an orgy very like an Irish “wake.” Like
most imaginative peoples, the Montenegrins are extremely
superstitious, and belief in the vampire, demons and fairies is
almost universal. Among the mountains they can converse
fluently at astonishing distances. The physical type contrasts
with that of the northern Serbs: the features are more pronounced,
the hair is darker, and the stature is greater. The men
are tall, often exceeding 6 ft. in height, muscular, and wonderfully
active, displaying a cat-like elasticity of movement when
scaling their native rocks; their bearing is soldier-like and manly,
though somewhat theatrical. The women, though frequently
beautiful in youth, age rapidly, and are short and stunted,
though strong, owing to the drudgery imposed on them from
childhood; they work in the fields, carry heavy burdens, and
are generally treated as inferior beings. Like the Albanians,
the Montenegrins take great pride in personal adornment. The
men wear a red waistcoat, embroidered with gold or black braid,
over which a long plaid is sometimes thrown in cold weather; a
red girdle, in the folds of which pistols and yataghans are placed;
loose dark-blue breeches and white stockings, which are generally
covered with gaiters. The
opanka
, a raw-hide sandal, is worn
instead of boots; patent leather long boots are sometimes worn
by military officers and a few of the wealthier class. The headdress
is a small cap (
kapa
), black at the sides, in mourning for
Kossovo; red at the top, it is said, in token of the blood shed
then and afterwards. On the top near the side, five semicircular
bars of gold braid, enclosing the king’s initials, are supposed
to represent the five centuries of Montenegrin liberty. There
is little authority, however, for this and other fanciful interpretations
of the pattern, which was adopted in the reign of Peter I.;
the red fez, from which the kapa probably derives its colour,
was previously worn. A blue or green mantle is sometimes
worn in addition by the chiefs. The poorer mountaineers are
often dressed in coarse sacking, but all without exception carry
arms. The women, as befits their servile condition, are generally
clothed in black, and wear a black head-dress or veil; on Sundays
and holidays, however, a white embroidered bodice, silver girdle,
and bright silk skirt are worn beneath an open coat. Over this
is placed a short, sleeveless jacket of red, blue, or violet velvet,
according to the wearer’s age. Unmarried girls are allowed to
wear the red kapa, but without the embroidered badge. The
Vasoyevitch tribe retain the Albanian costume, in which white
predominates. Turkish dress is often seen at Antivari, Dulcigno
and Podgoritza. The dwelling-houses are invariably of stone,
except in the eastern districts, where wooden huts are found.
As a rule, only the mansions of cattle-owners have a second
storey: the ground floor, which is dark and unventilated, is
occupied by the animals; the upper chambers, in which the
family reside, are reached by a ladder or stone staircase. Chimneys
are rare, and the smoke of the fireplace escapes through the
windows (if any exist) or the open doorway. The principal
food of the people is rye or maize cake, cheese, potatoes and
salted
scoranze
; their drink is water or sour milk; meat is seldom
tasted, except on festive occasions, when raki and red wine are
also enjoyed. The Montenegrins are great smokers, especially
of cigarettes; in the districts which formerly belonged to Turkey
the men, whose dignity never permits them to carry burdens,
may be seen going to market with the
chibuk
, or long pipe, slung
across their backs. The mother possesses little influence over
her sons, who are trained from their earliest infancy to cultivate
warlike pursuits and to despise the weaker sex. Betrothals
often take place in early childhood. Young men who are
attached to each other are accustomed to swear eternal brotherhood
(
pobratimstvo
); the bond, which receives the sanction of
the Church, is never dissolved. Marriages between Montenegrins
and converted Turkish girls are a common source of blood-feuds.
The
zadruga
, or house-community, under the rule of a
stareshina
,
or house-father, is found in Montenegro as in other Slavonic
lands (see
Servia
). The tribal system still exists, but possesses
less significance than in Albania, owing to the centralization
of' authority at Cettigne. The tribe (
pleme
, pl.
plemena
) is
subdivided into clans (
bratstva
).
Constitution and Government
.?Notwithstanding the creation
of an elective senate in 1831, the grant of a so-called constitution
in 1868, and the establishment of a responsible ministry in 1874,
the government remained autocratic till 1905, the whole power,
even the control of religion and finance, which the constitution
of 1868 had conceded to the senate, being centred in the
hands of the prince, who in 1910 assumed the title of king. The
senate, instituted by Peter II. with the object of limiting the
power of the tribal chieftains, was in 1881 merged in a council of
state, the members of which, six in number, were nominated and
dismissed by the prince. The council supervises measures to be
laid before the
Skupshtina
, or national assembly, and exercises
a disciplinary control over officials. The ministry comprises six
departments: (1) the interior, with separate sections for public
works, posts and telegraphs, commerce and industry, shipping,
sanitary service and agriculture; (2) foreign affairs; (3) war;
(4) finance; (5) justice; and (6) education. On the 19th of
December 1905 a new constitution was proclaimed by Prince
Nicholas. A
Skupshtina
was instituted, consisting of 62 elected
deputies, 9
ex officio
members (the higher ecclesiastical and
civil dignitaries), and 3 generals nominated by the prince.
The Skupshtina is elected by manhood suffrage for a period of
four years, and is summoned annually on the 31st of October.
In conjunction with the Crown it exercises the legislative power;
the ministers are responsible to it as well as to the Crown. The
constitution affords financial supervision to the Skupshtina,
which elects a board of control and votes an annual budget; it
guarantees liberty of the person, of religious belief, and of the
press, together with the right of public meeting, and abolishes
the death penalty for political offences.
Administration and Justice
.?For purposes of local administration
the country is divided into 5 departments (
oblasti
), each
governed by a prefect (
upravitel
), and 56 districts (
kapetanati
),
each under an official styled
kapetan
. The prefects and kapetans
are nominated by the king on the recommendation of the
minister of the interior. Rural communes, each under an
elected
kmet
, or mayor, exist in Montenegro as in all Slavonic
countries. The kmets act as justices of the peace, and there is
an appeal from their decisions to the courts of first instance
(
kapetanski sudove
), of which there is one in each district, the
kapetan acting as judge. In each of the five departments there
is a superior court (
oblasni sud
), with a president and two judges;
at Cettigne there is a high court of justice (
veliki sud
), which is
the final court of appeal. The ultimate appeal to the prince
was abolished in 1902, when Prince Nicholas laid aside his
judicial functions, retaining only the prerogative of pardon.
The judges, who are removable, are nominated by the king on
the recommendation of the minister of justice. With a single
exception there are no professional advocates in Montenegro;
each man is his own counsel, bringing his own witnesses. The
local gendarmerie, numbering 150 men, is distributed in the five
departments. The
kapetanati
have replaced the former local
divisions according to
plemena
; in each of the communes
there is one or more of the
bratstva
. The codification of the
law, which had previously been administered according to unwritten
custom, was first undertaken by Peter I. in 1796. An
improved code, issued by Danilo II. in 1855, still contained many
quaint enactments. The excellent code drawn up by Professor
Bogishitch, a native of Ragusa, in 1888, was revised and enlarged
in 1899. It contains elements from various foreign systems
scientifically adapted to national usages and requirements. A
large number of judicial reforms were carried out by Count
Voinovitch, who succeeded Professor Bogishitch in 1899; in 1905
a new code of civil procedure was promulgated, and a criminal
code in the following year. The only prison is at Podgoritza.
In the old prison at Cettigne, closed after 1902, many of the
inmates were free to walk in and out at pleasure. Some were
burdened with fetters, rather as a punishment than for restraint.
Until the completion of an asylum in 1903, dangerous lunatics
were confined in prison. The commonest offences are murder
and robbery; despite vigorous measures taken by the king and
his predecessors, the blood-feud, or vendetta, cannot be stamped
out, being approved, and even enforced, by public sentiment.
Only women are held exempt from the duty of avenging their
next-of-kin; they have been known, however, to undertake it,
disguising themselves in male attire. A man who kills his
slanderer, or otherwise avenges his honour, often receives a
nominal term of imprisonment. Robbery, if practised by means
of raids across the frontier, is popularly regarded as a venal
offence. Other forms of crime are rare, and foreigners may
traverse all parts of the kingdom, except the neighbourhood
of the Albanian border, in perfect safety. The death penalty
was first introduced by Peter I. Executions are carried out
by a firing party selected from the various tribes, in order to
prevent the relatives of the criminal from exacting vengeance.
Exceptional severity is shown in the treatment of political
offenders, who in some instances have been subjected to solitary
confinement for years without trial.
Finance
.?Financial statistics are not published. The total
receipts were estimated in 1907 at 2,773,690 Austrian krone,
[6]
the
principal sources of income being the taxes on land, houses and cattle,
the monopolies of tobacco, salt, petroleum and alcohol, and the
customs dues. The total expenditure was estimated at 2,730,994
krone, the principal items being: civil list, &c., 189,586 krone;
ministry of interior, 574,822 krone; of foreign affairs, 144,547
krone; of justice, 232,710 krone; of finance, 592,561 krone; of war,
133,696 krone; of worship and education, 269,208 krone; service of
national debt, 244,500 krone. The public debt is under £300,000.
The contribution of Montenegro to the Ottoman debt has not been
fixed. From time to time considerable subventions have been
received from Russia and Austria. The annual Russian subsidy,
mainly for military and educational purposes, is stated to be about
£40,000. Montenegro has no mint; Austrian paper money and
coins are generally employed together with Montenegrin nickel and
bronze coins struck in Austria. Turkish gold and silver are also
in circulation. The former Turkish and Venetian weights and
measures have been superseded by the French.
Defence
.?The Montenegrin is a born warrior; his weapons, which
he never lays aside, are his most precious possession, and distinction
in battle is the sole object of his ambition. Persons of all classes
wear a revolver in the
kolan
or waistband. “You might as well
take from me my brother as my rifle,” says a native proverb; and
rifles are almost universally carried near the Albanian frontier,
where the tribesmen on either side are in a state of chronic hostility.
Brave to a fault, an unerring marksman, hardy, agile, crafty and
enduring, the Montenegrin has few rivals in the practice of guerrilla
warfare. The traditional method of fighting is by ambuscade;
the enemy is enticed into some intricate defile, surrounded, and
harassed by rifle-fire; then the mountaineers, throwing aside their
firearms, deliver a swift attack with the
hanjar
, or yataghan, which
they wield with terrific effect. A number of heads cut off in battle
adorned the parapet of a small tower outside Cettigne, called the
“Turks’ Tower,” as late as 1850. When reduced to extremity the
Montenegrins often committed suicide rather than fall into the hands
of the enemy, the last cartridge being reserved for this purpose;
disabled comrades who could not be removed used to be beheaded,
in 1876 a Montenegrin offered to perform this kindly service for a
Russian officer who was wounded at Klobuk. Savage methods of
warfare, however, have been strongly discountenanced by King
Nicholas and his predecessor. Till the middle of the 19th century
the forces of the principality consisted of undisciplined bands of
tribesmen under local chiefs, whose rivalries often proved injurious
to the national cause. The supreme command, however, always
rested with the prince. The nucleus of a permanent corps was
created by Peter II., who formed a bodyguard of picked men known
as
perianiki
, from the feathers (
pera
) which adorned their caps.
The name is still borne by a small corps (20 men in 1907) which
guards the residences of the king and his sons, but the feathers
are no longer worn. In 1853 Danilo II. ordered the enrolment of all
persons capable of bearing arms, and instituted a military hierarchy
of
voievodes
(generals),
sirdars
(colonels) and
kapetans
; the organization,
which was based on the tribal system, was remodelled by
Servian officers in 1870, when the chiefs were brought to Cettigne
to receive military instruction. In the same year arms of precision
were introduced: the cost and complex structure of the new weapons
threatened to cause serious difficulty, but Russian aid was soon
forthcoming. Since 1870, though arms and ammunition are manufactured on a small scale within the kingdom, the chief supplies
have come from Russia. In 1895 the tsar presented Prince Nicholas
with 30,000 Berdan rifles, besides ordnance and other war material,
and in 1898 sent a further gift of 35,000 Moskovska rifles. Every
able-bodied citizen must serve in the army, except Moslems, who are
exempt on payment of a capitation tax. The military organization
has undergone a gradual transformation under Prince Nicholas
in conformity with the changed circumstances of the country and
the requirements of modern warfare. The militia system on the
tribal basis is maintained, but in 1896 a permanent battalion of
500 men was established at Cettigne, and two years later another
at Podgoritza, each under a
komandir
, or major, 4 captains and 15
lieutenants. A permanent brigade of artillery was formed at Nikshitch
in 1897. In 1905 these were abolished through motives of
economy. There is a standing corps of officers, but no standing
army. All young men of military age go through an obligatory
period of twelve days’ service at the various local military centres.
Candidates for a commission afterwards proceed to a military
school at Podgoritza for one year; the best and most promising
then receive commissions as
pod-ofizieri
or
sous-officiers
, and are
sent for a further course of instruction of two years to military schools
either at Cettigne for the infantry, or at Nikshitch for the artillery.
They then receive full commissions and are sent to the local centres
to superintend the training of the militia, thus gradually superseding
the old militia officers, and replenishing the standing corps of officers
of the regular army. Officers who have completed a course of
study abroad are allowed to wear a distinctive emblem on the
kapa
.
The war strength is estimated at from 38,000 to 42,000 men, the
infantry being composed of about 32,000 men of the first ban and of
5000 or 6000 of the second or reserve (which, however, would
scarcely be employed in the field), the artillery of about 1500.
Considerable deduction must be made from these numbers in view of the
emigration of recent years; according to some authorities between
20,000 and 22,000 men of military age are absent in America and
elsewhere. It is expected, however, that many of these would
return should the country become involved in war. The infantry
is divided into 11 brigades, each containing from 4 to 6 battalions;
the total number of battalions is 56. The battalion is composed of
a varying number of
tchete
, or companies, each of which belongs
to a separate clan and has its own
bairaktar
, or standard-bearer.
The younger men of the first ban are occasionally exercised in the
neighbourhood of their homes on Sundays and holidays. They are
armed with the Moskovska (repeating) rifle, but a Berdan rifle is
also kept in each household. The artillery was composed in 1910 of
18 siege, 25 field and 38 mountain guns, with 4 howitzers, 15 mortars
and 18 machine-guns (6 Gatling and 12 Maxim-Nordenfeldt); the
principal arsenal is at Spuzh, where the heavier guns are kept, the
others are distributed among 8 of the 11 local brigades. The
perianiki
, whose numbers were increased by Prince Danilo, were
disbanded in 1898, when steps were taken to form a bodyguard
of 3000 picked men under Prince Mirko, King Nicholas’s second
son, but the project was abandoned in view of the jealousies to
which the selection gave rise. Owing to the lack of open country
there is no cavalry. In 1894 the sultan presented Prince Nicholas
with equipment for a small mounted body-guard (32 men), and
offered the services of three instructors. This corps, however,
ceased to exist in 1898. About 20,000 men can concentrate at a
given spot within 48 hours. The signal for mobilization is mainly
given by telegraph; bonfires, trumpet-calls and volley-firing are
also employed. The warriors were formerly summoned by stentorian
couriers, who shouted from the tops of the mountains. An
ambulance corps has been formed. Transport is deficient, all
draught animals, however, in the country have been registered
and a few carts have been provided. The wives and daughters of
the troops provide the commissariat, and carry the ammunition.
Religion
.?The Montenegrin Church is an autocephalous branch
of the Eastern Orthodox communion. In 1894 it formally vindicated
its independence against the claims of the Russian synod.
The
vladikas
, or prince-bishops, formerly depended on the patriarchate
of Ipek. The theocratic system of government which existed from
1516 to 1851 tended to unite the patriotic and the religious instincts
of the people. Since the separation of the spiritual and temporal
powers in 1851, the see of Cettigne, in which the diocese of Ostrog
is included, has been occupied by a metropolitan (
metropolit
), who
possesses a nominal jurisdiction over Scutari and the Primore.
In judgments relative to divorce his verdicts may be reversed
by the king. Otherwise he is supreme in matters spiritual. There
are 159 parishes of the Orthodox Church, 10 Roman Catholic
parishes under the archbishop of Antivari and 10 Mahommedan
parishes under a mufti. The churches are small unpretending
structures, almost all exactly alike; a handsome cathedral, however,
has been erected at Nikshitch. The principal monasteries, in
addition to the convent at Cettigne, are those of St Nicholas, on the
Moratcha, and of St Basil at Ostrog. The monastic order is almost
extinct; the parochial clergy, who numbered about 400 in 1900,
are only distinguishable from the laity by their beards; they wear
the national costume, carry weapons, take part in warfare, and
follow the ordinary avocations of the peasantry. Even the old
vladikas discarded the episcopal robe, except when engaged in
sacerdotal duties. The clergy are still for the most part extremely
ignorant.
Education
.?The
Bogoslovia
, a seminary for the instruction of
the young priests and schoolmasters, was established at Cettigne
in 1869. It is maintained by a subvention from the emperor of
Russia, while the empress supports the Zhenski Tzrnogorski
Institut, an excellently managed school for girls (98 pupils in 1907).
Government lecturers go on circuit to instruct the older men. They
may be seen on Sundays, not only distributing general information,
but teaching the shepherds how to safeguard their flocks from
disease, and the lowland cultivators how to tend their vines and
tobacco crops. An agricultural college at Podgoritza supplements
their work. Primary education is compulsory. In the rural districts
it is free; in the towns a small fee is charged. In 1906 there
were 112 primary schools in the principality with 150 teachers
and 9756 pupils; and two secondary schools (at Cettigne and
Podgoritza) with 21 professors and about 1000 pupils; the Moslems
and Roman Catholics have separate schools. There are also
gymnasia, or high schools, at Cettigne and Podgoritza, with about
700 pupils. Students desirous of higher education proceed abroad,
for the most part to the university in Belgrade. The progress of
education under Prince Nicholas was very remarkable. In the time
of his predecessor, Danilo II., who taught the sons of his chieftains
in the palace, there were only three schools in the principality.
In 1876, at the beginning of the war, there were 52 schools, with 62
teachers and 3159 pupils. The schools were closed during the war,
and at its conclusion only 22 could be reopened, owing to want of
funds. Elementary education was reorganized in 1878.
Language and Literature
.?The Montenegrin language is practically
identical with the Serbo-Croatian: it exhibits certain dialectical
variations, and has borrowed to some extent from the Turkish and
Italian. Existing manuscripts and printed books, chiefly psalters
and gospels, bear witness to a period of literary culture among the
clergy contemporaneous with the activity of the printing-press at
Obod. This was established in 1493, a few years after Caxton set
up his first press in Westminster. It was destroyed by the Turks
in 1566, after sending out copies of the gospel into all Slavonic
countries. The folk-songs, however, of which the first collection was
made in the reign of Peter II., constitute the bulk of the national
literature. The poems of that ruler are accounted among the classics
of the Servian language, especially his
Gorski Vienatz
, or “Mountain
Wreath,” a drama describing the massacre of the Montenegrin
Moslems by their Christian kinsmen in 1702. The reigning family
has produced a succession of poets; the songs of Mirko Petrovitch,
the father of Prince Nicholas, and the lyrics and dramas of Prince
Nicholas himself enjoy great celebrity. The
Grlitze
, or “Turtledoves,”
a kind of almanac published at Cettigne by Milakovitch
between 1835 and 1839, contained poems, tales, statistics and an
abridgment of the Montenegrin annals down to 1830; it was succeeded
in the time of Danilo II. by the Orlitch, or “Eaglet.” The first
Montenegrin newspaper, the
Tzrnogoratz
, or “Montenegrin,”
founded in 1870, was prohibited on the Austrian frontier, and soon
disappeared; it was replaced by the
Glas Tzrnogortza
, or “Voice
of the Montenegrin,” a semi-official publication. There were in
1910 three other journals in the kingdom.
Antiquities
.?In Montenegro, as in Albania, the monuments of
early civilization bear witness to Roman rather than to Greek
influence. Roman remains occur in many parts of the country
east of the Zeta, and early Latin churches exist at Dulcigno
(
Ulcinium
) and other places. “The organization and forms of
the churches, the architecture and ornamentation, point to the
West and not to the East.” It is evident that Latin civilization
was firmly planted in Illyria before the barbarian incursions of the
6th century. Latin sepulchral inscriptions and some finely cut
marble blocks have been found at Berane, a little beyond the eastern
frontier, and at Budimlye in its neighbourhood. Especially interesting
and important are the extensive ruins of Doclea, now known
as Dukle, the birthplace of the Emperor Diocletian. The city,
which received the franchise under the Flavian emperors, occupied
a remarkable site at the junction of the rivers Zeta and Moratcha.
The outer walls are standing in many places, and excavations
carried out in 1893 by M. Rovinski and Messrs J. A. R. Munro,
Milne and Anderson revealed considerable portion of the ground-plan,
including several streets and a forum. Among the buildings
are a fine civil basilica, with a great inscription on the architrave,
two small temples, an early Christian basilica, and a later church;
several inscriptions, columns, richly worked capitals and tracery,
and mosaic pavements have been brought to light. At Medun
there are remnants of polygonal masonry. Illyrian forts are found
in many parts of the country. The ravages of the Turks obliterated
almost every trace of medieval culture. The fortress of Obod, the
site of the famous printing-press, is a heap of ruins; a fragment of
one of the first missals printed here is shown at Cettigne; it bears
the date 1494. Other editions are preserved at the monastery of
Tzainitza, on the Bosnian side of the frontier, and at Moscow. The
precious books and relics stored in the monastery of Ivan the Black
at Cettigne perished with the destruction of the monastery in 1687.
The building, the home of the reigning vladikas, had been previously
sacked by the Turks in 1623, and was again destroyed by them in
1714. In the fortress-monastery of St Nicholas (founded in 1252),
which overlooks the headwaters of the Moratcha, are some interesting
and well-preserved frescoes which date from the 13th century.
The monastery of Ostrog, about twelve miles from Nikshitch, is a
comparatively recent foundation, dating from the 18th century.
It has been styled “the Lourdes of the Balkans,” owing to its reputation
for miraculous cures, and is visited annually by thousands of
Orthodox pilgrims, and even by Roman Catholics and Moslems.
The upper portion, situated in the cleft of a precipitous rock, was
in 1768 and again in 1862 successfully defended by a handful of
men against the Turks.
History
.?The history of Montenegro as an independent state
begins with the battle of Kossovo (1389), but the country had
enjoyed periods of independence or semi-independence at various
epochs before that event. It formed a portion of the district
of Praevalitana in the Roman province of Illyria, and, lying on
the borderland of the empires of the West and East, it alternately
shared the fortunes of either till the close of the 5th century. It
was then conquered by the Ostrogoths (
A.D.
493), but half a century
later definitely passed under Byzantine rule, having already
acknowledged the ecclesiastical authority of Constantinople,
a circumstance which determined the course of its subsequent
history. Illyria and Dalmatia succumbed to the great Serbo-Croat
invasion of the 6th and 7th centuries; the Serb race by
which Montenegro is now inhabited occupied the country about
the middle of the 7th century. A Confederacy of Serb states
was formed under
zhupans
, or feudal princes, dependent on the
grand zhupan, who was nominally the vassal of the Greek
emperor. The Serb principality of the Zeta, or Zenta, originally
included the Herzegovina, Cattaro and Scutari, as well as the
Montenegro of to-day, and was ruled by a zhupan resident at
Doclea. The principality, though retaining its zhupans, was
practically united with the Servian kingdom between 1159 and
1356 under the Nemanya dynasty, which sprang from Doclea.
After the death of the great Servian tsar Dushan in 1356 the
feudatory princes of his empire became more or less independent,
and the powerful family of Balsha established a dynasty in the
Zeta, eventually transferring its capital from Doclea to Scutari.
After the fatal defeat of Kossovo, which extinguished the independence
of Servia for more than four centuries (see
Servia
),
George Balsha, the ruling prince of the Zeta, withdrew to the
mountainous portion of his realm, which became an asylum for
many of the Servian nobles and for others who had been outlawed
or persecuted by the Turkish conqueror. The principality now
owned no suzerain, and the history of its heroic struggle with
the Turks began. The long record of warfare is varied by
conflicts with the Venetians, who at times allied themselves
with the mountaineers, but usually deserted them in the hour
of need. The Balsha family became extinct in 1421, and a new
dynasty was founded by Stephan Tzernoyevitch, or Tzernovitch,
who fixed his capital at Zhabliak on the north-east side of Lake
Scutari, and joined with his relative, the famous
Scanderbeg
(
q.v.
) in many campaigns against the Turks. After the Turkish
conquest of Bosnia in 1463, of the Herzegovina in 1476 and of
Albania in 1478, and the surrender of Scutari by the Venetians
in 1479, the Montenegrins found themselves surrounded on all
sides by the Ottoman power, and the struggle was henceforth for
existence. Abandoned by Venice and unable to obtain succour
from any Christian state, Ivan the Black, the son and successor
of Stephan, set fire to Zhabliak in 1484, and withdrew with his
people to the mountain village of Tzetinye (Cettigne) which has
ever since been the capital of the little principality. Here he
founded the famous monastery and created a bishopric in order
to establish the spiritual power at the seat of government. Ivan
was one of the greatest heroes of Montenegrin history: according
to the national legend, he still sleeps in a cave near his fortress
of Obod?to awake when the hour arrives for the expulsion of
the Turks from Europe.
The Tzernoyevitch dynasty came to an end in 1516, and from
this date till 1696 the mountaineers were ruled by the
vladikas
or bishops of Cettigne, elected by assemblies of the
chiefs and people, and consecrated by the patriarch
of Ipek. The elective vladikas were aided in matters
relating to national defence by a civil governor. The institution
The Elective Vladikas.
of a theocratic sovereignty probably saved the country from
absorption in the Turkish Empire, the supreme power being
vested in a sacrosanct person, whose position was unattainable by
ambitious Chieftains, and whose holy office precluded the possibility
of his defection to Islam. The earlier vladikas were left
comparatively unmolested by the Turks, and were enabled to
devote their attention to the issue of numerous psalters, missals
and gospels from the printing-press at Obod. But the beginning
of the 17th century was marked by renewed Turkish aggression.
Cettigne was taken in 1623 and again in 1687, when the monastery
of Ivan the Black was blown up by the monks; a tribute
was for a time imposed on the mountaineers, but the bolder
spirits maintained their resistance in the heights, and the
invading armies found it impossible to prolong their stay in
these inhospitable regions.
In 1696 it was decided to continue the hereditary principle
with the theocratic system, and Danilo Petrovitch of Niegush,
the first ruler of the present reigning family, was
nominated vladika with power to select his successor
from among his relatives. The succession was
henceforth regularly from uncle to nephew, owing
The House of Petrovitch.
to the rule of celibacy imposed on the monastic order. The
reign of Danilo I. was memorable for the massacre of the Moslems
settled in the principality (the “Montenegrin vespers”) on
Christmas Eve 1702, the great defeat of the Turkish invaders
at Tzarevlatz (1712), the capture of Cettigne by the Turks and
the destruction for the third time of its monastery (1714), and
the inauguration of the intimate relations which have ever since
existed with Russia by the visit of the vladika to Peter the Great
in 1715. With Russian aid Danilo was enabled in some degree
to repair the ruin which had overtaken his little realm. In
the time of his successor Sava (1737?1782) an impostor named
Stephan Mali, who represented himself as the Russian emperor
Peter III., won the confidence of the Montenegrins, and governed
the country with ability for several years (1768?1773), the
mountaineers defeating the combined efforts of the Turks and
Venetians to remove him. He was eventually assassinated by
a Greek suborned by the pasha of Scutari. Peter I. (1782?1830),
the greatest of the vladikas, took part in the war of Austria and
Russia against Turkey (1788?92), but was abandoned by his
allies in the. treaties of Sistova and Jassy. He nevertheless
completely routed the Turks in the battle of Krussa (1796),
annexed the Brda region to the principality, and obtained a
formal recognition of Montenegrin independence from the sultan
in 1799. In concert with the Russians he besieged the French
in Ragusa (1806), and in 1813?14 expelled them from the
Bocche di Cattaro with the aid of a British fleet under Admiral
Fremantle. The much-coveted seaport, however, was almost
immediately occupied by an Austrian force. Peter I. reorganized
the internal administration and promulgated the first
Montenegrin code of laws. After his death he was canonized
as a saint by the people. His successor Peter II. (1830?1851),
a poet, statesman and reformer, as well as a capable military
chief, instituted a senate (1831), abolished the office of civil
governor (1832), revived the national printing-press, and did
much to educate and civilize his people. He was buried by his
desire on the summit of Mount Lovchen that his spirit might
survey his beloved land. He was the last of the vladikas; his
nephew Danilo II. (1851?1860) at once declined the ecclesiastical
dignity, and assuming the title of
gospodar
, or prince, settled
the succession on his direct male descendants. He defeated
the Turks near Ostrog in 1853, but refrained from attacking
them during the Crimean War. His pacific policy produced
much discontent among the warlike mountaineers, which culminated
in an open revolt. His demand for the recognition of
Montenegrin independence and other claims were set aside by
the Congress of Paris. In 1858 his brother Mirko, “the Sword
of Montenegro,” routed the Turks with great slaughter at
Grahovo. In 1855 Danilo II. promulgated a new code, assuring
civil and religious liberty to his subjects. On the 11th of August
1860 he was shot at Persano on the Bocche di Cattaro by a
Montenegrin whom he had exiled after the revolt, and died two
days afterwards. He left no male offspring, and was succeeded
by Nicholas, the son of his brother Mirko.
Shortly after the accession of Prince Nicholas (Aug. 13,
1860), an insurrection broke out in Herzegovina, and the sympathy
which the mountaineers displayed with their
Christian kinsmen led to a rupture with Turkey
(1862). Notwithstanding the heroic defence of
Ostrog by the prince’s father, Mirko, the war proved disastrous,
Prince Nicholas.
owing to the superior armament and discipline of the Turkish
troops, and severe terms were imposed on the principality by
the convention of Scutari (Aug. 31). During the fourteen
years of peace which followed, the country suffered greatly from
pestilence and famine. Within this period a series of reforms
were carried out by the prince: the army was rearmed and reorganized,
an educational system was initiated, and a constitution
under which the prince surrendered various prerogatives to
the Senate was granted. In 1869 the Krivoshians, or Serb
inhabitants of the northern shores of the Bocche di Cattaro,
rose against the Austrian government; the excitement in
Montenegro was intense, but the prince succeeded in checking
the warlike ardour of his subjects. The revolt in Bosnia and
Herzegovina in 1875 had more important consequences for the
principality. On the 2nd of July 1876 Prince Nicholas, in
alliance with Prince Milan of Servia, declared war against
Turkey and invaded Herzegovina. A victory was gained at
Vuchidol (July 28), and Medun was captured; but the Servian
army suffered reverses, and an armistice was arranged in
November. In the following spring the determination of Russia
to take the field against Turkey encouraged the Montenegrins
to renew the war. The Turks succeeded in occupying Ostrog,
but were subsequently repulsed; the greater part of their forces
was soon withdrawn to Bulgaria, and Prince Nicholas captured
successively Nikshitch, Antivari and Dulcigno. The recovery of
the seaboard, which had belonged to Montenegro in the middle
ages, was perhaps the principal achievement of the war. The
enlargement of territory stipulated for by Russia under the treaty
of San Stefano (March 3, 1878) would have brought Montenegro
into close contiguity with Servia, thus facilitating the eventual
union of the Serb race and closing the path of Austria towards
the Aegean. The Berlin Treaty (article xxviii.) gave to Montenegro
Nikshitch, Spuzh, Podgoritza, Plava, Gusinye and Antivari,
but restored Dulcigno to Turkey. The resistance of the Moslem
inhabitants of Plava and Gusinye to annexation led to long
negotiations, and eventually the “Corti Compromise” was
agreed to by a conference of the Powers at Constantinople
(April 18, 1880). Plava and Gusinye were to be restored to
Turkey, while the Montenegrin frontier was extended so as to
include the Hoti and the greater part of the Klementi tribes.
This arrangement, which could hardly have proved successful,
was not carried out by Turkey, and the Powers subsequently
decided to annex Dulcigno to Montenegro in exchange for Plava
and Gusinye. The Porte interposed delays, though consenting
in principle, and the Albanian League (see
Albania
) assumed a
menacing attitude. On the 28th of September the fleets of the
Powers under Admiral Seymour appeared off Dulcigno, and the
British government shortly afterwards proposed to occupy
Smyrna. On the 11th of November the Porte yielded; on the
22nd the Turkish troops defeated the Albanians, and on the 25th
Montenegro obtained possession of Dulcigno. The present frontier,
as already described, was shortly afterwards delimited by an
international commission. With the exception of some frontier
troubles, the years since 1880 have been spent in peace, and the
country has advanced in prosperity under the autocratic but
enlightened rule of Prince Nicholas. The relations with Turkey,
the traditional foe, have improved, While those with Austria
have become less friendly. In July 1893 the four-hundredth
anniversary of the foundation of the printing-press at Obod was
celebrated at Cettigne, several foreign universities and learned
bodies being represented at the festivities. In September 1896
the bi-centenary of the Petrovitch dynasty was commemorated.
The marriage in the same year of Princess Helen, fourth daughter
of Prince Nicholas, with the crown prince of Italy, subsequently
King Victor Emmanuel III., led to an increase of Italian influence
in the principality. In December 1900 Prince Nicholas assumed
the title “Royal Highness.” In October 1906 the first Montenegrin
parliament assembled at Cettigne; and on the 28th of
August 1910,
Prince Nicholas
(
q.v.
) assumed the title of king.
Authorities.
?Milutinovitch,
History of Montenegro
(in Russian),
(St Petersburg, 1835); Wilkinson,
Dalmatia and Montenegro
(London,
1848); Vuk Karajich,
Montenegro und die Montenegriner
(Stuttgart,
1857); Kallay,
Geschichte der Serben von den altesten Zeiten bis
1815
(trans. from the Hungarian by J. H. Schwicker; Budapest,
1885), Servian trans.,
Istoria Srpskoga naroda
(Belgrade,
1876); Frilley and Wlahowitj,
Le Montenegro contemporain
(Paris,
1876); Rash,
Montenegro
(Leipzig, 1877); Milakovitch,
Storia del
Montenegro
(Ragusa, 1877); Gopchevitch,
Montenegro und die
Montenegriner
(Leipzig, 1877); Yriarte,
Les Bords de l’Adriatique
et le Montenegro
(Paris, 1878); Stefanovitch von Vilovo,
Wanderungen
durch Montenegro
(Vienna, 1880); Chiudina,
Storia del Montenegro
(Spalato, 1882); Tietze,
Geologische Uebersicht von Montenegro
(Vienna, 1884); Rovinsky,
Tchernagora
(in Russian; St Petersburg,
1888); Duchitch,
Tzernagora
(in Servian; Belgrade, 1891); Medakovitch,
Pietro II. Petrovic Niegus
(Neusatz, 1892); Hassert,
Reise
durch Montenegro
(Vienna, 1893); Coquelle,
Histoire du Montenegro
et de la Bosnie
(Paris, 1895); Miller,
The Balkans
, pp. 353-468
(London, 1896); Mantegazza,
Al Montenegro
(Florence, 1896);
Tomanovitch,
Petar Drugi Petrovich Niegosh
(Cettigne, 1896);
Antonio Martini,
Il Montenegro
(Turin, 1897); Bourchier, “Montenegro
and her Prince,” in
Fortnightly Review
(December, 1898);
Rouvaratz,
Montenegrina
(in Servian; Semlin, 1899); Gelchitch,
La Zedda e la dinastia dei Bal?idi
(Spalato, 1899); R. Wyon and G.
Prance,
The Land of the Black Mountain
(London, 1903). The best
map is that of the Austrian staff.
(
J. D. B.
)