Language given special status in a country or territory
An
official language
is a language having certain rights to be used in defined situations. These rights can be created in written form or by historic usage.
[1]
[2]
178 countries recognize an official language, 101 of them recognizing more than one. The government of Italy made
Italian
official only in 1999,
[3]
and some nations (such as the
United States
,
Mexico
, and
Australia
) have never declared de jure official languages at the national level.
[4]
Other nations have declared non-indigenous official languages.
Many of the world's constitutions mention one or more official or
national languages
.
[5]
[6]
Some countries use the official language designation to empower indigenous groups by giving them access to the government in their native languages. In countries that do not formally designate an official language, a
de facto
national language usually evolves.
English
is the most common official or co-official language, with recognized status in 51 countries.
Arabic
,
French
, and
Spanish
are official or co-official languages in several countries.
An official language that is also an
indigenous language
is called
endoglossic
, one that is not indigenous is
exoglossic
.
[7]
An instance is
Nigeria
which has three endoglossic official languages. By this, the country aims to protect the indigenous languages although at the same time recognising the English language as its lingua franca. In spatial terms,
indigenous (endoglossic) languages
are mostly employed in the function of official languages in
Eurasia
, while mainly non-indigenous (exoglossic) imperial (European) languages fulfill this function in most of the "Rest of the World" (that is, in parts of
Africa
, the
Americas
,
Australia
and
Oceania
).
Lesotho
,
Madagascar, South Africa
, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia,
Greenland
,
New Zealand
,
Samoa
and
Paraguay
are among the exceptions to this tendency.
[8]
History
[
edit
]
Around 500 BC, when
Darius the Great
annexed
Mesopotamia
to the
Persian Empire
, he chose a form of the
Aramaic language
(the so-called
Official Aramaic
or Imperial Aramaic) as the vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different peoples and languages.
[9]
Aramaic script
was widely employed from
Egypt
in the southwest to
Bactria
and
Sogdiana
in the northeast. Texts were dictated in the native dialects and written down in Aramaic, and then read out again in the native language at the places they were received.
[10]
The
First Emperor of Qin
standardized the written language of China after unifying the country in 221 BC.
[11]
Classical Chinese
would remain the standard written language for the next 2000 years. Standardization of the spoken language received less political attention, and
Mandarin
developed on an
ad hoc
basis from the dialects of the various imperial capitals until being officially standardized in the early twentieth century.
Statistics
[
edit
]
The following languages are official (
de jure
or
de facto
) in three or more sovereign states. In some cases, a language may be defined as different languages in different countries. Examples are Hindi and Urdu, Malay and Indonesian, Serbian and Croatian, Persian and Tajik.
Some countries?like
Australia
, the
United Kingdom
and the
United States
?have no official language recognized as such at a national level. On the other extreme,
Bolivia
officially recognizes 37 languages, the most of any country in the world. Second to Bolivia is
India
with
22 official languages
.
South Africa
is the country with the third lead with 11 official languages that all have equal status;
[12]
Bolivia gives primacy to
Spanish
, and India gives primacy to
English
and
Hindi
(only for some extent).
[13]
Political alternatives
[
edit
]
The selection of an official language (or the lack thereof) is often contentious.
[14]
An alternative to having a single official language is "official
multilingualism
", where a government recognizes multiple official languages. Under this system, all government services are available in all official languages. Each
citizen
may choose their preferred language when conducting business. Most countries are multilingual
[15]
and many are officially multilingual.
Taiwan
,
Canada
, the
Philippines
,
Belgium
,
Switzerland
, and the
European Union
are examples of official multilingualism. This has been described as controversial and, in some other areas where it has been proposed, the idea has been rejected.
[14]
It has also been described as necessary for the recognition of different groups
[16]
or as an advantage for the country in presenting itself to outsiders.
[17]
Official languages by country and territory
[
edit
]
Afghanistan
[
edit
]
Following
Chapter 1, Article 16
of the
Constitution of Afghanistan
, the
Afghan government
gives equal status to
Pashto
and
Dari
as official languages.
Australia
[
edit
]
English is the
de facto
national language of Australia, while Australia has no
de jure
official language,
[18]
English is the
first language
of
the majority of the population
, and has been entrenched as the
de facto
national language
since
European settlement
, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of
Australians
.
[19]
Azerbaijan
[
edit
]
Article 21 of
Azerbaijani Constitution
designates the official language of the
Republic of Azerbaijan
as
Azerbaijani Language
.
[20]
Bangladesh
[
edit
]
After the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the then Head of the State
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
adopted the policy of 'one state one language'.
[21]
The
de facto
national language
,
Bengali
, is the sole official language of
Bangladesh
according to the third article of the
Constitution of Bangladesh
.
[22]
The government of Bangladesh introduced the
Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987
to ensure the mandatory use of Bengali in all government affairs.
[23]
Belarus
[
edit
]
Belarusian
and
Russian
have official status in the
Republic of Belarus
.
Belgium
[
edit
]
Belgium
has three official languages:
Dutch
,
French
and
German
.
[24]
Bulgaria
[
edit
]
Bulgarian
is the sole official language in
Bulgaria
.
[25]
Canada
[
edit
]
Following the
Constitution Act, 1982
the (federal)
Government of Canada
gives equal status to English and French as official languages. The Province of
New Brunswick
is also officially bilingual, as is
Yukon
.
Nunavut
has four official languages: English, French,
Inuktitut
and
Inuinnaqtun
. The
Northwest Territories
has eleven official languages:
Chipewyan/Dene
,
Cree
,
English
,
French
,
Gwich’in
,
Inuinnaqtun
,
Inuktitut
,
Inuvialuktun
,
North Slavey
,
South Slavey
, and
Tłı?ch?
(Dogrib). All provinces, however, offer some necessary services in both English and French.
The Province of Quebec with the
Official Language Act (Quebec)
and
Charter of the French Language
defines French, the language of the majority of the population, as the official language of the provincial government.
Ethiopia
[
edit
]
Ethiopia has five official languages (Amharic alone until 2020)
Amharic
,
Oromo
,
Somali
,
Tigrinya
, and
Afar
, but Amharic is the de facto sole official language which is used by the government for issuing driving licenses, business licenses, passport, and foreign diplomacy with the addition that Court documents are in Amharic, and the constitution is written in Amharic, making Amharic a higher official language in the country.
[26]
Finland
[
edit
]
According to the Finnish constitution,
Finnish
and
Swedish
are the
national languages
of the republic, giving their speakers the right to do communicate with, and receive official documents from, government authorities in either of the two languages in any part of the country ? making those languages de facto
official
.
[27]
Speakers of
Sami languages
have those same rights in their native area (
Sami homeland
).
[28]
Germany
[
edit
]
German
is the official language of
Germany
. However, its
minority languages
include
Sorbian
(
Upper Sorbian
and
Lower Sorbian
),
Romani
,
Danish
and
North Frisian
, which are officially recognised. Migrant languages like Turkish, Russian and Spanish are widespread but are not officially recognised languages.
Hong Kong
[
edit
]
According to the
Basic Law of Hong Kong
and the
Official Languages Ordinance
, both
Chinese
and
English
are the official languages of
Hong Kong
with equal status. The variety of Chinese is not stipulated; however,
Cantonese
, being the language most commonly used by the majority of
Hongkongers
, forms the
de facto
standard. Similarly,
Traditional Chinese characters
are most commonly used in Hong Kong and form the
de facto
standard for written Chinese, however, there is an increasing presence of
Simplified Chinese characters
particularly in areas related to tourism.
[29]
In government use, documents written using Traditional
Chinese
characters are authoritative over ones written with Simplified Chinese characters.
[30]
India
[
edit
]
The
Constitution of India
(
part 17
) designates the official language of the Government of India as
Hindi
written in the Devanagari script.
[31]
Although the original intentions of the constitution were to phase out English as an official language, provisions were provided so that "Parliament may by law provide for the use ... of ... the English language".
The
Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution
lists has 22 languages,
[32]
which have been referred to as scheduled languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of classical language to
Tamil
,
Sanskrit
,
Kannada
,
Telugu
,
Malayalam
and
Odia
.
Indonesia
[
edit
]
The official language of Indonesia is the
Indonesian language
(
Bahasa Indonesia
). Bahasa Indonesia is regulated in Chapter XV, 1945 Constitution of Indonesia.
Israel
[
edit
]
On 19 July 2018, the
Knesset
passed a
basic law
under the title
Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People
, which defines
Hebrew
as "the State's language" and Arabic as a language with "a special status in the State" (article 4). The law further says that it should not be interpreted as compromising the status of the
Arabic
language in practice before the enactment of the basic law, namely, it preserves the status quo and changes the status of Hebrew and Arabic only nominally.
[33]
Before the enactment of the aforementioned basic law, the status of official language in Israel was determined by the 82nd paragraph of the "
Palestine
Order in Council
" issued on
14 August 1922
, for the
British Mandate of Palestine
, as amended in 1939:
[34]
- "All Ordinances, official notices and official forms of the Government and all official notices of local authorities and municipalities in areas to be prescribed by order of the High Commissioner, shall be published in English, Arabic, and Hebrew."
This law, like most other laws of the British Mandate, was adopted in the State of Israel, subject to certain amendments published by the provisional legislative branch on 19 May 1948. The amendment states that:
- "Any provision in the law requiring the use of the English language is repealed."
[35]
In most
public schools
, the main teaching language is Hebrew, English is taught as a second language, and most students learn a third language, usually Arabic but not necessarily. Other public schools have Arabic as their main teaching language, and they teach Hebrew as a second language and English as a third one. There are also bilingual schools which aim to teach both Hebrew and Arabic equally.
Some languages other than Hebrew and Arabic, such as English, Russian,
Amharic
,
Yiddish
and
Ladino
enjoy a somewhat special status but are not official languages. For instance, at least 5% of the broadcasting time of privately owned TV channels must be translated into Russian (a similar privilege is granted to Arabic), warnings must be translated to several languages, and signs are mostly trilingual (Hebrew, Arabic and English), and the government supports Yiddish and Ladino culture (alongside Hebrew culture and Arabic culture).
Latvia
[
edit
]
The Official Language Law recognizes
Latvian
as the sole official language of Latvia, while
Latgalian
is protected as "a historic variant of Latvian" and
Livonian
is recognized as "the language of the indigenous (autochthonous) population".
[36]
Latvia also provides national minority education programmes in
Russian
,
Polish
,
Hebrew
,
Ukrainian
,
Estonian
,
Lithuanian
, and
Belarusian
.
[37]
In 2012 there was a
constitutional referendum
on elevating
Russian
as a co-official language, but the proposal was rejected by nearly three-quarters of the voters.
[38]
Malaysia
[
edit
]
The official language of Malaysia is the
Malay language
(
Bahasa Melayu
), also known as Bahasa Malaysia or just Bahasa for short. Bahasa Melayu is being protected under Article 152 of the Constitution of Malaysia.
Netherlands
[
edit
]
Dutch
is the official language of the
Netherlands
(a constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands). In the province of
Friesland
,
Frisian
is the official second language. While Dutch is therefore the official language of the
Caribbean Netherlands
(the islands
Bonaire
,
Saba
and
Sint Eustatius
), it is not any of the three islands' main spoken language:
Papiamento
is the most often spoken language on Bonaire, while
English
is on both Saba and Sint Eustatius. These languages can be used in official documents (but do not have the same status as Frisian).
Low Saxon
and
Limburgish
, languages acknowledged by the
European Charter
, are spoken in specific regions of the Netherlands.
[39]
New Zealand
[
edit
]
New Zealand
has three official languages. English is the
de facto
official language, accepted as such in all situations. The
M?ori language
and
New Zealand Sign Language
both have restricted
de jure
official status under the
M?ori Language Act 1987
and
New Zealand Sign Language
Act 2006
.
[40]
[41]
In 2018,
New Zealand First
MP
Clayton Mitchell
introduced a bill to parliament to
statutorily
recognise English as an official language. As of May 2020, the bill had not progressed.
[42]
[43]
[44]
During the
2023 New Zealand general election
, New Zealand First leader
Winston Peters
promised to make English an official language of New Zealand.
[45]
Nigeria
[
edit
]
The official language of Nigeria is English, which was chosen to facilitate the cultural and linguistic unity of the country.
British colonial rule
ended in 1960.
Norway
[
edit
]
Pakistan
[
edit
]
Urdu
and English both are official languages in Pakistan. Pakistan has more than 60 other languages.
Philippines
[
edit
]
Filipino
and English both are official languages of the Philippines.
Poland
[
edit
]
Polish
is the official language of
Poland
.
Russia
[
edit
]
Russian
is the official language of the
Russian Federation
and in all
federal subjects
, however many minority languages have official status in the areas where they are indigenous. One type of federal subject in Russia,
republics
, are allowed to adopt additional official languages alongside Russian in their constitutions. Republics are often based around particular native ethnic groups and are often areas where ethnic
Russians
and native Russian-language speakers are a minority.
South Africa
[
edit
]
South Africa
has twelve official languages
[12]
that are mostly indigenous. Due to limited funding, however, the government rarely produces documents in most languages. Accusations of mismanagement and
corruption
have been leveled
[46]
against the
Pan South African Language Board
, established to promote multilingualism, develop the 11 official languages, and protect language rights in the country.
[13]
Switzerland
[
edit
]
The four national languages of
Switzerland
are
German
,
French
,
Italian
and
Romansh
. At the federal level German, French and Italian are official languages, the official languages of individual cantons depend on the languages spoken in them.
Taiwan
[
edit
]
Mandarin
is the most common language used in government. After
World War II
the mainland Chinese-run government made Mandarin the official language, and it was used in the schools and government. Under the
National languages development act
, political participation can be conducted in any national language, which is defined as a "natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan",
[47]
which also includes
Formosan languages
, the
Taiwanese variety of Hokkien
and
Hakka
. According to Taiwan's Legislative Yuan, amendments were made to the Hakka Basic Act to make
Hakka
an official language of
Taiwan
.
[48]
Timor-Leste
[
edit
]
According to the constitution of Timor-Leste,
Tetum
and
Portuguese
are the official languages of the country, and every official document must be published in both languages;
Indonesian
and
English
hold "working language" status in the country.
[49]
Ukraine
[
edit
]
The official language of
Ukraine
is
Ukrainian
.
United Kingdom
[
edit
]
The de facto official language of the United Kingdom is
English
.
[50]
In
Wales
, the
Welsh language
, spoken by approximately 20% of the population, has
de jure
official status, alongside English.
[51]
[52]
United States
[
edit
]
English is the
de facto
national language of the United States. While there is no official language at the federal level, 32 of the 50
U.S. states
[53]
and all five inhabited
U.S. territories
have designated English as one, or the only, official language, while courts have found that residents in the 50 states do not have a right to government services in their preferred language.
[54]
Public debate in the last few decades has focused on whether
Spanish
should be recognized by the government, or whether all business should be done in English.
[14]
California
allows people to take their
driving test
in the following 32 languages: Amharic, Arabic, Armenian, Chinese, Croatian, English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hindi, Hmong, Hungarian, Indonesian, Italian,
Japanese
, Khmer, Korean, Laotian,
Persian
, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Romanian, Russian, Samoan, Spanish, Tagalog/Filipino, Thai, Tongan, Turkish, and Vietnamese.
[55]
New York
state provides voter-registration forms in the following five languages:
Bengali
,
Chinese
,
English
,
Korean
and
Spanish
. The same languages are also on ballot papers in certain parts of the state (namely,
New York City
).
[56]
Opponents of an official language policy in the United States argue that it would hamper "the government's ability to reach out, communicate, and warn people in the event of a natural or man-made disaster such as a hurricane, pandemic, or...another terrorist attack".
[54]
Professor of politics Alan Patten argues that disengagement (officially ignoring the issue) works well in religious issues but that it is not possible with language issues because it must offer public services in some language. Even if it makes a conscious effort not to establish an official language, a
de facto
official language, or the "
national language
", will nevertheless emerge.
[14]
[57]
Yugoslavia
[
edit
]
Sometimes an official language definition can be motivated more by national identity than by linguistic concerns. Prior to the
breakup in early 1990s
, although
SFR Yugoslavia
had no official language on the federal level, its six constituent republics including two autonomous provinces accounted for four official languages?
Serbo-Croatian
,
Slovene
,
Macedonian
and
Albanian
. Serbo-Croatian served as the
lingua franca
for mutual understanding and was also the language of
the military
, as official in four republics and taught as a
second language
in the other two.
When
Croatia
declared independence in 1991, it defined its official language as
Croatian
, while the confederate union of
Serbia and Montenegro
likewise defined its official language as
Serbian
in 1992.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
defined three official languages:
Bosnian
, Croatian, and Serbian. From the linguistic point of view, the different names refer to national varieties of the same language, which is known under the appellation of Serbo-Croatian.
[58]
[59]
[60]
The language used in
Montenegro
became standardized as the
Montenegrin language
upon Montenegro's declaration of independence from
Serbia and Montenegro
in 2006.
Zimbabwe
[
edit
]
Since the adoption of the
2013 Constitution
, Zimbabwe has 16
official languages
, namely
[61]
[62]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
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Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language
, Ed. Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1998.
- ^
Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P.R.R. 580 (1965), p. 588-589. See also LOPEZ-BARALT NEGRON, "Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Espanol: Idioma del proceso judicial", 36 Revista Juridica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and VIENTOS-GASTON, "Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma", 36 Rev. Col. Ab. (P.R.) 843 (1975).
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????? ???? ?????? ???, ????
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Writing Systems of the World: Alphabets, Syllabaries, Pictograms
(1990),
ISBN
0-8048-1654-9
? lists official languages of the countries of the world, among other information.
External links
[
edit
]