Scripture of Hinduism
This article is about a scripture of Hinduism. For the field of traditional Indian medicine, see
Ayurveda
.
Yajurveda
|
---|
A page from the
Vajasneyi samhita
found in the Shukla Yajurveda (Sanskrit, Devanagari script). This version of the manuscript opens with salutations to Ganesha and Sadashiva (
Shaivism
).
|
|
Religion
| Hinduism
|
---|
Language
| Vedic Sanskrit
|
---|
Period
| c.
1200?800
BCE
|
---|
Chapters
| 40 adhyayas
|
---|
Verses
| 1,975 mantras
[2]
|
---|
The
Yajurveda
(
Sanskrit
:
????????
,
IAST
:
yajurveda
, from
?????
, "worship",
[3]
and
???
, "knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals.
[4]
An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual-offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the
yajna
fire.
[4]
Yajurveda is one of the four
Vedas
, and one of the scriptures of
Hinduism
. The exact century of Yajurveda's composition is unknown, and estimated by Witzel to be between 1200 and 800 BCE, contemporaneous with
Samaveda
and
Atharvaveda
.
The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two ? the "black" or "dark" (
Krishna
) Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" (
Shukla
) Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear" Yajurveda.
[5]
The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions of white Yajurveda have survived into modern times.
[6]
The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda
samhita
includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in
Rigveda
.
[7]
[8]
The middle layer includes the
Satapatha Brahmana
, one of the largest
Brahmana
texts in the Vedic collection.
[9]
The youngest layer of Yajurveda text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of
Hindu philosophy
. These include the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
, the
Isha Upanishad
, the
Taittiriya Upanishad
, the
Katha Upanishad
, the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
and the
Maitri Upanishad
.
[10]
[11]
Two of the oldest surviving manuscript copies of the
Shukla Yajurveda
sections have been discovered in
Nepal
and Western
Tibet
, and these are dated to the 12th-century CE.
[12]
Etymology
[
edit
]
Yajurveda is a compound Sanskrit word, composed of
yajus
(?????) and
Veda
(???). Monier-Williams translates
yajus
as "religious reverence, veneration, worship, sacrifice, a sacrificial prayer, formula, particularly mantras uttered in a peculiar manner at a sacrifice".
[13]
Veda
means "knowledge". Johnson states
yajus
means "(mostly) prose formulae or mantras, contained in the Yajur Veda, which are muttered".
[14]
Michael Witzel interprets Yajurveda to mean a "knowledge text of prose mantras" used in Vedic rituals.
[4]
Ralph Griffith interprets the name to mean "knowledge of sacrifice or sacrificial texts and formulas".
[15]
Carl Olson states that Yajurveda is a text of "mantras (sacred formulas) that are repeated and used in rituals".
[16]
Dating and historical context
[
edit
]
The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of
Vedic Sanskrit
at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE ? younger than the
Rigveda
, and roughly contemporary with the
Atharvaveda
, the Rigvedic
Khilani
, and the
S?maveda
.
[17]
The scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda
hymns
to the early Indian
Iron Age
, after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.
Text
[
edit
]
Recensions
[
edit
]
The Yajurveda text includes Shukla Yajurveda of which about 16 recensions are known, while the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many as 86 recensions.
[6]
Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only because they are mentioned in other texts. These two recensions are nearly the same, except for a few differences.
[6]
In contrast to Shukla Yajurveda, the four surviving recensions of Krishna Yajurveda are very different versions.
[6]
Shukla Yajurveda
[
edit
]
The samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the
Vajasaneyi Samhita
. The name
Vajasaneyi
is derived from Vajasaneya, the patronymic of
Yajnavalkya
, and the founder of the Vajasaneyi branch. There are two (nearly identical) surviving recensions of the Vajasaneyi Samhita (VS):
Vajasaneyi Madhyandina
and
Vajasaneyi Kanva
.
[6]
The lost recensions of the White Yajurveda, mentioned in other texts of ancient India, include
Jabala
,
Baudhya
,
Sapeyi
,
Tapaniya
,
Kapola
,
Paundravatsa
,
Avati
,
Paramavatika
,
Parasara
,
Vaineya
,
Vaidheya
,
Katyayana
and
Vaijyavapa
.
[18]
Recensions of the White Yajurveda
[19]
Recension Name
|
Adhyayas
|
Anuvakas
|
No. of Verses
|
Regional presence
|
Reference
|
Madhyandina
|
40
|
303
|
1975
|
Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, North India
|
[20]
|
Kanva
|
40
|
328
|
2086
|
Maharashtra, Odisha, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
|
[21]
|
Shukla Yajurveda Shaakhaas
Shakha
|
Samhita
|
Brahmana
|
Aranyaka
|
Upanishad
|
Madhyandina (VSM)
|
Vajasneyi Samhita
(Madhyandin)
|
Madhyandina Shatapatha (SBM)
|
survives as Shatapatha XIV.1?8, with accents.
|
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
|
Kanva (VSK)
|
Vajasneyi Samhita
(Kanva)
|
Kanva Shatapatha (SBK)
(different from madhyandina)
|
survives as book XVII of SBK
|
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
(different from above)
|
Krishna Yajurveda
[
edit
]
There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda ?
Taittir?ya sa?hit?
,
Maitrayani sa?hit?
,
Ka?ha sa?hit?
and
Kapi??hala sa?hit?
.
[22]
A total of eighty six recensions are mentioned to exist in Vayu Purana, however vast majority of them are believed to be lost.
[23]
The Katha school is referred to as a sub-school of
Carakas
(wanderers) in some ancient texts of India, because they did their scholarship as they wandered from place to place.
[24]
In contrast to the Shukla Yajurveda, the sa?hit?s of the Krishna Yajurveda contained both mantras and explanatory prose (which would usually belong to the br?hma?as).
Recensions of the Black Yajurveda
[19]
Recension Name
|
No. of Sub-recensions
[26]
|
Kanda
|
Prapathaka
|
No. of Mantras
|
Regional presence
|
Reference
|
Taittiriya
|
2
|
7
|
42
|
|
South India
|
[27]
|
Maitrayani
|
6
|
4
|
54
|
|
Western India
|
[28]
|
K??haka (Caraka)
|
12
|
5
|
40
|
3093
|
Kashmir, North India, East India
|
[26]
|
Kapi??hala
|
5
|
6
|
48
|
|
Extinct
|
[30]
|
Krishna Yajurveda Shaakhaas
Shakha
|
Samhita
|
Brahmana
|
Aranyaka
|
Upanishad
|
Taittiriya
|
Taittiriya Samhita
|
Taittiriya Brahmana and Vadhula Brahmana
(part of Vadhula Srautrasutra)
|
Taittiriya Aranyaka
|
Taittiriya Upanishad
|
Maitrayani
|
Maitrayani Samhita
|
Not Available
|
virtually same as the Upanishad
|
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
|
Caraka-Katha
|
Katha Samhita
|
?at?dhy?ya Br?hma?a (only exists in fragments)
[31]
|
Katha Aranyaka (almost the entire text from a solitary manuscript)
|
Kathaka Upanishad,
Katha-Shiksha Upanishad
|
The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the
Taittir?ya sa?hit?
. Some attribute it to Tittiri, a pupil of
Yaska
and mentioned by
Panini
.
[32]
The text is associated with the
Taittiriya
school of the Yajurveda, and attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri (literally,
partridge
birds).
[33]
The
Maitrayani sa?hit?
is the oldest Yajurveda Samhita that has survived, and it differs largely in content from the Taittiriyas, as well as in some different arrangement of chapters, but is much more detailed.
[34]
The
K??haka sa?hit?
or the
Caraka-Ka?ha sa?hit?
, according to tradition was compiled by Katha, a disciple of
Vaisampayana
.
[34]
Like the Maitrayani Samhita, it offers much more detailed discussion of some rituals than the younger
Taittiriya samhita
that frequently summarizes such accounts.
[34]
The
Kapi??hala sa?hit?
or the
Kapi??hala-Ka?ha sa?hit?
, named after the sage Kapisthala is extant only in some large fragments and edited without accent marks.
[34]
This text is practically a variant of the
K??haka sa?hit?
.
Organization
[
edit
]
Each regional edition (recension) of Yajurveda had
Samhita
,
Brahmana
,
Aranyakas
,
Upanishads
as part of the text, with
Shrautasutras
,
Grhyasutras
and
Pratishakhya
attached to the text. In Shukla Yajurveda, the text organization is same for both Madhayndina and Kanva shakhas.
[6]
[18]
The texts attached to Shukla Yajurveda include the
Katyayana Shrautasutra
,
Paraskara Grhyasutra
and
Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya
.
[
citation needed
]
In Krishna Yajurveda, each of the recensions has or had their Brahmana text mixed into the Samhita text, thus creating a motley of the prose and verses, and making it unclear, disorganized.
[5]
[34]
Contents
[
edit
]
Samhitas
[
edit
]
The
Vajasaneyi Samhita
has forty chapters or
adhyayas
, containing the formulas used with the following rituals:
[19]
Chapters of the White Yajurveda
[19]
Chapter No.
|
Ritual Name
|
Time
|
Nature of Ritual
|
Reference
|
1?2
|
Dar?ap?r?am?sa (Full and new moon rituals)
|
2 days
|
Offer cow milk to fire. Separate calves from the cows.
|
[35]
[36]
|
3
|
Agnihotra
and C?turm?sya
|
1 day, 4 months
|
The former is the daily oblation of milk into the fire, and the latter is the seasonal sacrifices at the beginning of the three seasons.
|
[38]
|
4?8
|
Soma sacrifice
|
|
Bathe in river. Offer milk and soma to fire. Offerings to deities of thought, speech. Prayer to
Indra
to harm no crop, guard the cattle, expel demons.
|
[39]
|
9?10
|
V?japeya
and
R?jas?ya
|
|
The former is a variant of the soma sacrifice which involves a chariot race, and the latter is a variant of the soma sacrifice in which a king is consecrated.
|
[40]
|
11?18
|
Agnicayana
|
360
|
Formulas and rituals for building altars and hearths for Agni
yajna
, with largest in the shape of outspread eagle or falcon.
|
[41]
|
19?21
|
Sautr?ma??
|
|
Ritual that deals with the overindulgence of soma, and to assure victory and success.
|
[42]
|
22?25
|
A?vamedha
|
180 or 360
|
Horse sacrifice ritual conducted by kings.
|
[43]
|
26?29
|
|
|
Supplementary formulas for above sacrifices
|
[44]
|
30?31
|
Puru?amedha
|
|
Symbolic sacrifice of
Purusha
(Cosmic Man). Nominal victim played the part, but released uninjured after the ceremony, according to
Max Muller
[45]
and others.
[46]
A substitute for
Ashvamedha
(horse sacrifice). The ritual plays out the cosmic creation.
|
[47]
|
32?34
|
Sarvamedha
|
10
|
Stated to be more important than
Purushamedha
above. This ritual is a sacrifice for Universal Success and Prosperity. Ritual for one to be wished well, or someone leaving the home, particularly for solitude and
moksha
, who is offered "curd and ghee (clarified butter)".
|
[48]
|
35
|
Pitriyajna
|
|
Ritual funeral-related formulas for
cremation
. Sacrifice to the Fathers and Ancestors.
|
[49]
|
36?39
|
Pravargya
|
|
According to Griffith, the ritual is for long life, unimpaired faculties, health, strength, prosperity, security, tranquility and contentment. Offerings of cow milk and grains to yajna fire.
|
[50]
|
40
|
|
|
This chapter is not an external sacrifice ritual-related. It is
Isha Upanishad
, a philosophical treatise about inner Self (
Atman
, Soul). The verse 40.6 states, "The man who in his Self beholds all creatures and all things that be, And in all beings sees his Self, then he doubts no longer, ponders not.
|
[51]
|
- Structure of the mantras
The various ritual
mantras
in the Yajurveda Samhitas are typically set in a meter, and call on Vedic deities such as the
Savita
(Sun), Indra, Agni, Prajapati, Rudra and others. The Taittiriya Samhita in Book 4, for example, includes the following verses for the Agnicayana ritual recitation (abridged),
[52]
First harnessing the mind, Savita; creating thoughts and perceiving light, brought Agni from the earth.
Harnessing the gods with mind; they who go with thought to the sky, to heaven, Savita instigates those who will make great light.
With the mind harnessed, we are instigated by god Savita, for strength to go to heaven.
Whose journey the other gods follow, praising the power of the god, who measured the radiant regions of the earth, he is the great god Savita.
God Savita, impel the ritual, impel for good fortune the lord of ritual !
Divine Gandharva, purifier of thought, purify our thoughts ! May the lord of speech make our words sweet !
God Savita, impel for us this ritual,
Honoring the gods, gaining friends, always victorious, winning wealth, winning heaven !
Satapatha Brahmana
[
edit
]
The title
Satapatha Brahmana
means "Brahmana of the Hundred Paths".
[53]
It is one of the largest
Brahmana
text that has survived.
[53]
It includes, states Staal, a "veritable encyclopedia of meandering opinions on ritual and other matters".
[53]
The Satapatha Brahmana was translated by Eggeling in late 19th-century, reprinted often and has been well read because of the translation. However, it has been misinterpreted and misused, states Staal, because "it contains enough material to support
any
theory".
[53]
Eggeling, the first translator of Satapatha Brahmana called it "flimsy symbolism rather than serious reasoning", similar to "speculative vaporings" found in the Christian and non-Christian variety of
Gnosticism
.
[53]
[54]
Upanishads
[
edit
]
The Yajurveda has six primary Upanishads embedded within it.
[11]
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
[
edit
]
The
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
is found in the White Yajurveda.
[5]
It is one of the
Mukhya Upanishads
, and among the largest and oldest as well (~700 BCE).
[10]
It is a key scripture of
Hinduism
that has influenced all schools of
Hindu philosophy
. The text is a treatise on
?tman
(Soul, Self), with passages on metaphysics, ethics and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various
Indian religions
, ancient and medieval scholars.
[55]
[56]
[57]
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is among the earliest extensive discussions of the Hindu concept of
dharma
,
karma
and
moksha
(liberation from sorrow, freedom, emancipation, self-realization). Paul Deussen calls it, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times.
[58]
Max Muller illustrated its style as follows,
But when he [Self] fancies that he is, as it were, a god,
or that he is, as it were, a king,
or "I am this altogether," that is his highest world,
This indeed is his (true) form, free from desires, free from evil, free from fear.
Now as a man, when embraced by a beloved wife,
knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within,
thus this person, when embraced by the
Prajna
(conscious, aware) Self,
knows nothing that is without, nothing that is within.
This indeed is his (true) form, in which his wishes are fulfilled,
in which the Self only is his wish, in which no other wish is left,
he is free from any sorrow.
?
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 4, Brahmanam 3, Hymns 20?32, Translated by Max Muller
[59]
Isha Upanishad
[
edit
]
The
Isha Upanishad
is found in the White Yajurveda.
[5]
It is one of the shortest
Upanishads
, embedded as the final chapter of the Shukla Yajurveda. A key scripture of the
Vedanta
sub-schools of Hinduism, its name is derived from "hidden in the Lord (Self)".
[60]
The Isha Upanishad discusses the Atman (Soul, Self) theory of Hinduism, and is referenced by both
Dvaita
(dualism) and
Advaita
(non-dualism) sub-schools of Vedanta.
[61]
[62]
It is classified as a "poetic Upanishad" along with Kena, Katha, Svetasvatara and Mandukya Upanishads.
[63]
Taittiriya Upanishad
[
edit
]
The
Taittiriya Upanishad
is found in the black Yajurveda.
[5]
It is the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Taittiriya
Aranyaka
, which are also called, respectively, the
Siksha Valli
, the
Ananda Valli
and the
Bhrigu Valli
.
[5]
[64]
The Taittiriya Upanishad includes verses that are partly prayers and benedictions, partly instruction on phonetics and praxis, partly advice on ethics and morals given to graduating students from ancient Vedic
gurukul
(schools), partly a treatise on allegory, and partly philosophical instruction.
[5]
The text offers a view of education system in ancient India. It also includes sections on ethics and invocation for one's personal development.
Max Muller
translates the text's tenth anuvaka, for example, as an affirmation of one's Self as a capable, empowered blissful being.
[65]
The tenth anuvaka asserts, "I am he who shakes the tree. I am glorious like the top of a mountain. I, whose pure light (of knowledge) has risen, am that which is truly immortal, as it resides in the sun. I (Soul, Self) am the treasure, wise, immortal, imperishable. This is the teaching of the Veda, by sage Trisanku."
[65]
Katha Upanishad
[
edit
]
The
Katha Upanishad
is found in the black Yajurveda.
[5]
The Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy,
Nachiketa
? the son of sage Vajasravasa, who meets
Yama
? the Indian deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, ?tman (Soul, Self) and moksha (liberation).
[66]
The Kathaka Upanishad is an important ancient Sanskrit corpus of the
Vedanta
sub-schools. It asserts that "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", teaches the precept "seek Self-knowledge which is Highest Bliss", and expounds on this premise like the other primary Upanishads of Hinduism. The detailed teachings of Katha Upanishad have been variously interpreted, as
Dvaita
(dualistic)
[67]
and as
Advaita
(
non-dualistic
).
[68]
[69]
[70]
The Katha Upanishad found in the Yajurveda is among the most widely studied Upanishads. Philosophers such as
Arthur Schopenhauer
praised it,
Edwin Arnold
rendered it in verse as "The Secret of Death", and
Ralph Waldo Emerson
credited Katha Upanishad for the central story at the end of his essay
Immortality
, as well as his poem "
Brahma
".
[68]
[71]
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
[
edit
]
The
Shvetashvatara Upanishad
is found in the black Yajurveda.
[5]
The text opens with metaphysical questions about the primal cause of all existence, its origin, its end, and what role if any did time, nature, necessity, chance, the spirit had as primal cause?
[72]
It then develops its answer, concluding that "the Universal Soul exists in every individual, it expresses itself in every creature, everything in the world is a projection of it, and that there is Oneness, a unity of souls in one and only Self".
[73]
The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is notable for its discussion of the concept of personal god ?
Ishvara
, and suggesting it to be a path to one's own Highest Self.
[73]
[74]
The text is also notable for its multiple mentions of both
Rudra
and
Shiva
, along with other Vedic deities, and of crystallization of Shiva as a central theme.
[74]
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
[
edit
]
The
Maitrayaniya Upanishad
, also known as the Maitri Upanishad, is found in the black Yajurveda. It consists of seven
Prapathakas
(lessons). The first
Prapathaka
is introductory, the next three are structured in a question-answer style and discuss metaphysical questions relating to
Atman
(Self, Soul), while the fifth to seventh
Prapathaka
are supplements.
[75]
However, several manuscripts discovered in different parts of India contain lesser number of
Prapathakas
, with a Telugu-language version showing just four.
[76]
The common kernel of the Maitri Upanishad across different recensions, states
Max Muller
, is a reverence for soul, that can be summarized in a few words as, "(Man) is the Self ? the immortal, the fearless, the
Brahman
".
[76]
The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is notable for its references to theories also found in
Buddhism
, elements of the
Samkhya
and
Yoga
schools of Hinduism, as well as the
Ashrama
system.
[77]
Srautasutras
[
edit
]
The Yajurveda had
Shrautasutras
and
Grhyasutras
attached to it, from fifteen schools:
Apastamba
, Agastya, Agniveshyaka,
Baudhayana
, Bharadvaja, Hiranyakeshi, Kaundinya, Kusidaka, Katyayana, Lokaksita, Madhyamdina, Panca-Kathaka, Satyasadha, Sakala, Sandilya,
Vaikhanasa
, and Vadula.
[78]
Of these nine have survived, along with portions of Kaundinya.
[78]
Manuscripts and translations
[
edit
]
Most surviving manuscripts and recensions of Yajurveda's Samhitas, Aranyakas and Brahmanas remain untranslated into Western languages. The two reliable translations are from British India colonial era, and have been widely studied.
[79]
These are AB Keith's translation of Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajurveda,
[80]
and Juliu Eggeling's translation of Satapatha Brahmana of the White Yajurveda.
[54]
Ralph Griffith published an early translation of White Yajurveda Samhita.
[81]
However,
Frits Staal
has questioned his translations and considers them "fantasies and best discarded".
[82]
Devi Chand published a re-interpreted translation of Yajurveda in 1965, reprinted as 3rd edition in 1980, wherein the translation incorporated Dayananda Saraswati's monotheistic interpretations of the Vedic text, and the translation liberally adds "O Lord" and "the Creator" to various verses, unlike other translators.
[83]
Ezourvedam forgery
[
edit
]
In 18th century, French Jesuits published
Ezourvedam
, claiming it to be a translation of a recension of the Yajurveda.
[84]
[85]
The Ezourveda was studied by
Voltaire
,
[86]
and later declared a forgery, representing Jesuit ideas to Indians as a Vedic school.
[85]
Significance
[
edit
]
The text is a useful source of information about the agriculture, economic and social life during the Vedic era.
[87]
The verses, for example, list the types of crops considered important in ancient India,
?
White Yajurveda 18.12,
[87]
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"Construction of the Vedas"
.
VedicGranth.Org
. Archived from
the original
on 17 July 2021
. Retrieved
3 July
2020
.
- ^
Jean Holm; John Bowker (1994).
Worship
. A&C Black. p. 88.
ISBN
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GS Rai,
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ISBN
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, page 124
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 1?16
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Ralph Griffith,
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 26?70
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 71?86
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EJ Lazarus, pages 87?171
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 172?204
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 288?290
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 291?303
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, pages 304?310
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b
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b
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b
Julius Eggeling,
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Brihadaranyaka Upanishad with Adi Shankara's commentary
S. Madhavananada (Translator)
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Brihadaranyaka Upanisad with the commentary of Madhvacharya, Translated by Rai Bahadur Sri?a Chandra Vasu (1933),
OCLC
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Patrick Olivelle (1998),
Upani?hads
, Oxford University Press, 1998, pages 1?23
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Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN
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Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Max Muller, The Sacred Books of the East, Volume 15, Oxford University Press
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Max Muller
, The Upanishads, The
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ISBN
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Madhava Acharya, The Commentary of Sri Madhva on Isha and Kena Upanishad,
OCLC
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,
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81882275
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SS Sastri (Translator), The Aitereya and Taittiriya Upanishad, pages 57?192
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Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN
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, pages 269?273
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Ariel Glucklich (2008), The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective, Oxford University Press,
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Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN
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a
b
Max Muller,
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, Oxford University Press, pages xxxii ? xlii
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b
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ISBN
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, pages 301?304
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Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN
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a
b
Max Muller, The Upanishads, Part 2,
Maitrayana-Brahmana Upanishad Introduction
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Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,
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b
Jan Gonda (1977), A History of Indian Literature: The Ritual Sutras, Vol 1, Fasc 2, Otto Harrassowitz,
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Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin,
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, pages 353, 121?153
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AB Keith (1914),
Taittiriya Sanhita
, Harvard University Press
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Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus (1899)
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Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin,
ISBN
978-0143099864
, page 352
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Devi Chand (1980), The Yajurveda, 3rd Edition, Munshiram Manoharlal,
ISBN
978-8121502948
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Urs App (2011), The Birth of Orientalism. Chapter 1: Voltaire's Veda, University of Pennsylvania Press, pages 433?435
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b
Ludo Rocher (1984), Ezourvedam: A French Veda of the Eighteenth Century, University of Pennsylvania Studies on South Asia,
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Moriz Winternitz and V. Srinivasa Sarma (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN, page 11 footnote 1
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b
Ralph Griffith,
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EJ Lazarus, page 163
Sources
[
edit
]
- Flood, Gavin
(1996),
An Introduction to Hinduism
, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN
978-0-521-43878-0
- Gonda, J. (1975).
Vedic literature : (Sa?hit?s and Br?hma?as)
. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
ISBN
3-447-01603-5
.
- Witzel, Michael
(1997),
"The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu"
(PDF)
, in Witzel, Michael (ed.),
Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas
, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora; vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press
- Witzel, Michael (2001),
"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"
(PDF)
,
Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies
,
7
(3): 1?115
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Ralph Thomas Hotchkin Griffith
,
The Texts of the White Yajurveda. Translated with a Popular Commentary
(1899).
- Devi Chand,
The Yajurveda. Sanskrit text with English translation. Third edition
(1980).
- The Sanhita of the Black Yajur Veda with the Commentary of Madhava 'Acharya
, Calcutta (Bibl. Indica, 10 volumes, 1854?1899)
- Kumar, Pushpendra,
Taittiriya Brahmanam (Krsnam Yajurveda)
, 3 vols., Delhi (1998).
External links
[
edit
]
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Yajurveda
.