American journalist and abolitionist (1805?1879)
William Lloyd Garrison
|
---|
|
Born
| (
1805-12-10
)
December 10, 1805
|
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Died
| May 24, 1879
(1879-05-24)
(aged 73)
New York City, U.S.
|
---|
Resting place
| Forest Hills Cemetery
,
Boston
, U.S.
|
---|
Occupation(s)
| Abolitionist, journalist
|
---|
Known for
| Editing
The Liberator
|
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Political party
| Republican
|
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Spouse
|
Helen Eliza Benson Garrison
(
m.
; died 1876)
|
---|
Children
| 5
|
---|
|
|
William Lloyd Garrison
(December 10, 1805 ? May 24, 1879) was an American abolitionist, journalist, and social reformer. He is best known for his widely read anti-slavery newspaper
The Liberator
, which Garrison founded in 1831 and published in
Boston
until
slavery in the United States
was abolished by the
Thirteenth Amendment
in 1865.
Garrison promoted "no-governmentism" and rejected the inherent validity of the American government on the basis that its engagement in war,
imperialism
, and slavery made it corrupt and tyrannical. He initially opposed violence as a principle and advocated for
Christian pacifism
against evil; at the outbreak of the
American Civil War
, he abandoned his previous principles and embraced the armed struggle and the Lincoln administration. He was one of the founders of the
American Anti-Slavery Society
and promoted immediate and uncompensated, as opposed to gradual and compensated, emancipation of
slaves in the United States
.
Garrison was a typesetter, which aided him in running
The Liberator
, and when working on his own editorials for the paper, Garrison would set them in type without first writing them out on paper.
[1]
: 57
Much like the martyred
Elijah Lovejoy
, a price was on Garrison's head; he was burned in effigy and gallows were erected in front of his Boston office. Later on, Garrison would emerge as a leading advocate of women's rights, which prompted a split in the
abolitionist
community. In the 1870s, Garrison became a prominent voice for the
women's suffrage movement
.
Early life
Garrison was born on December 10, 1805, in
Newburyport, Massachusetts
,
[2]
the son of immigrants from the British colony of
New Brunswick
, in present-day Canada. Under
An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen
, his father Abijah Garrison, a merchant-sailing pilot and master, had obtained American papers and moved his family to Newburyport in 1806. The U.S.
Embargo Act of 1807
, intended to injure Great Britain, caused a decline in American commercial shipping. The elder Garrison became unemployed and deserted the family in 1808. Garrison's mother was Frances Maria Lloyd, reported to have been tall, charming, and of a strong religious character. She started referring to their son William as Lloyd, his middle name, to preserve her family name; he later printed his name as "Wm. Lloyd". She died in 1823, in the city of
Baltimore, Maryland
.
[3]
Garrison sold homemade lemonade and candy as a youth, and also delivered wood to help support the family. In 1818, at 13, Garrison began working as an apprentice compositor for the
Newburyport Herald
.
He soon began writing articles, often under the pseudonym
Aristides
.
(Aristides was an Athenian statesman and general, nicknamed "the Just".) He could write as he typeset his writing, without the need for paper. After his apprenticeship ended, Garrison became the sole owner, editor, and printer of the
Newburyport Free Press,
acquiring the rights from his friend
Isaac Knapp
, who had also apprenticed at the
Herald
. One of their regular contributors was poet and abolitionist
John Greenleaf Whittier
. In this early work as a small-town newspaper writer, Garrison acquired skills he would later use as a nationally known writer, speaker, and newspaper publisher. In 1828, he was appointed editor of the
National Philanthropist
in
Boston, Massachusetts
, the first American journal to promote legally-mandated
temperance
.
He became involved in the anti-slavery movement in the 1820s, and over time he rejected both the
American Colonization Society
and the gradualist views of most others involved in the movement. Garrison co-founded
The Liberator
to espouse his abolitionist views, and in 1832 he organized out of its readers the
New-England Anti-Slavery Society
. This society expanded into the
American Anti-Slavery Society
, which espoused the position that slavery should be immediately abolished.
Career
Reformer
At the age of 25, Garrison joined the anti-slavery movement, later crediting the 1826 book of
Presbyterian
Reverend John Rankin
,
Letters on Slavery
, for attracting him to the cause.
[4]
For a brief time, he became associated with the
American Colonization Society
, an organization that promoted the "resettlement" of free blacks to a territory (now known as
Liberia
) on the west coast of Africa. Although some members of the society encouraged granting freedom to enslaved people, others considered relocation a means to reduce the number of already free blacks in the United States. Southern members thought reducing the threat of free blacks in society would help preserve the institution of slavery. By late 1829?1830, "Garrison rejected colonization, publicly apologized for his error, and then, as was typical of him, he censured all who were committed to it."
[5]
He stated that anti-colonialism activist and fellow abolitionist
William J. Watkins
had influenced his view.
[6]
Genius of Universal Emancipation
In 1829, Garrison began writing for and became co-editor with
Benjamin Lundy
of the
Quaker
newspaper
Genius of Universal Emancipation
, published at that time in
Baltimore, Maryland
. With his experience as a printer and newspaper editor, Garrison changed the layout of the paper and handled other production issues. Lundy was freed to spend more time touring as an anti-slavery speaker. Garrison initially shared Lundy's gradualist views, but while working for the
Genius
, he became convinced of the need to demand immediate and complete emancipation. Lundy and Garrison continued to work together on the paper despite their differing views. Each signed his editorials.
Garrison introduced "The Black List," a column devoted to printing short reports of "the barbarities of slavery – kidnappings, whippings, murders."
[7]
For instance, Garrison reported that Francis Todd, a shipper from Garrison's home town of
Newburyport, Massachusetts
, was involved in the domestic
slave trade
, and that he had recently had slaves shipped from Baltimore to
New Orleans
in the
coastwise trade
on his ship the
Francis
. (This was completely legal. An expanded domestic trade, "breeding" slaves in
Maryland
and
Virginia
for shipment south, replaced the importation of African slaves, prohibited in 1808; see
Slavery in the United States#Slave trade
.)
Todd filed a suit for libel in Maryland against both Garrison and Lundy; he thought to gain support from pro-slavery courts. The state of Maryland also brought criminal charges
[
clarification needed
]
against Garrison, quickly finding him guilty and ordering him to pay a fine of $50 and court costs. (Charges against Lundy were dropped because he had been traveling when the story was printed.) Garrison refused to pay the fine and was sentenced to a jail term of six months.
[8]
He was released after seven weeks when the anti-slavery philanthropist
Arthur Tappan
paid his fine. Garrison decided to leave Maryland, and he and Lundy amicably parted ways.
The Liberator
In 1831, Garrison, fully aware of the press as a means to bring about political change,
[9]
: 750
returned to New England, where he co-founded a weekly anti-slavery newspaper,
The Liberator
, with his friend
Isaac Knapp
.
[10]
In the first issue, Garrison stated:
In Park-Street Church, on the Fourth of July, 1829, I unreflectingly assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition. I seize this moment to make a full and unequivocal recantation, and thus publicly to ask pardon of my God, of my country, and of my brethren the poor slaves, for having uttered a sentiment so full of timidity, injustice, and absurdity. A similar recantation, from my pen, was published in the
Genius of Universal Emancipation
at Baltimore, in September 1829. My conscience is now satisfied.
I am aware that many object to the severity of my language; but is there not cause for severity? I will be as harsh as truth, and as uncompromising as justice. On this subject, I do not wish to think, or speak, or write, with moderation. No! No! Tell a man whose house is on fire to give a moderate alarm; tell him to moderately rescue his wife from the hands of the ravisher; tell the mother to gradually extricate her babe from the fire into which it has fallen; ? but urge me not to use moderation in a cause like the present. I am in earnest – I will not equivocate – I will not excuse – I will not retreat a single inch –
and I will be heard
. The apathy of the people is enough to make every statue leap from its pedestal and to hasten the resurrection of the dead.
[11]
Paid subscriptions to
The Liberator
were always fewer than its circulation. In 1834 it had two thousand subscribers, three-fourths of whom were black people. Benefactors paid to have the newspaper distributed free of charge to state legislators, governor's mansions, Congress, and the White House. Although Garrison rejected violence as a means for ending slavery, his critics saw him as a dangerous fanatic because he demanded immediate and total emancipation, without
compensation to the slave owners
.
Nat Turner
's slave rebellion in Virginia just seven months after
The Liberator
started publication fueled the outcry against Garrison in the South. A North Carolina grand jury indicted him for distributing incendiary material, and the Georgia Legislature offered a $5,000 reward (equivalent to $152,600 in 2023) for his capture and conveyance to the state for trial.
[12]
Knapp parted from
The Liberator
in 1840. Later in 1845, when Garrison published a eulogy for his former partner and friend, he revealed that Knapp "was led by adversity and business mismanagement, to put the cup of intoxication to his lips,"
[13]
forcing the co-authors to part.
Among the anti-slavery essays and poems which Garrison published in
The Liberator
was an article in 1856 by a 14-year-old
Anna Elizabeth Dickinson
.
The Liberator
gradually gained a large following in the Northern states. It printed or reprinted many reports, letters, and news stories, serving as a type of
community bulletin board
for the abolition movement. By 1861 it had subscribers across the North, as well as in England, Scotland, and Canada. After the end of the Civil War and the abolition of slavery by the
Thirteenth Amendment
, Garrison published the last issue (number 1,820) on December 29, 1865, writing a "Valedictory" column. After reviewing his long career in journalism and the cause of abolitionism, he wrote:
The object for which the
Liberator
was commenced – the extermination of chattel slavery – having been gloriously consummated, it seems to be especially appropriate to let its existence cover the historic period of the great struggle; leaving what remains to be done to complete the work of emancipation to other instrumentalities, (of which I hope to avail myself,) under new auspices, with more abundant means, and with millions instead of hundreds for allies.
[14]
Garrison and Knapp, printers and publishers
Organization and reaction
In addition to publishing
The Liberator
, Garrison spearheaded the organization of a new movement to demand the total abolition of slavery in the United States. By January 1832, he had attracted enough followers to organize the
New-England Anti-Slavery Society
which, by the following summer, had dozens of affiliates and several thousand members. In December 1833, abolitionists from ten states founded the
American Anti-Slavery Society
(AAS). Although the New England society reorganized in 1835 as the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society, enabling state societies to form in the other New England states, it remained the hub of anti-slavery agitation throughout the antebellum period. Many affiliates were organized by women who responded to Garrison's appeals for women to take an active part in the abolition movement. The largest of these was the
Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society
, which raised funds to support
The Liberator
, publish anti-slavery pamphlets, and conduct anti-slavery petition drives.
The purpose of the American Anti-Slavery Society was the conversion of all Americans to the philosophy that "Slaveholding is a heinous crime in the sight of God" and that "duty, safety, and best interests of all concerned, require its
immediate abandonment
without expatriation."
[15]
Meanwhile, on September 4, 1834, Garrison married
Helen Eliza Benson
(1811?1876), the daughter of a retired abolitionist merchant. The couple had five sons and two daughters, of whom a son and a daughter died as children.
The threat posed by anti-slavery organizations and their activity drew violent reactions from slave interests in both the Southern and Northern states, with mobs breaking up anti-slavery meetings, assaulting lecturers, ransacking anti-slavery offices, burning postal sacks of anti-slavery pamphlets, and destroying anti-slavery presses. Healthy bounties were offered in Southern states for the capture of Garrison, "dead or alive".
[16]
On October 21, 1835, "an assemblage of fifteen hundred or two thousand highly respectable gentlemen", as they were described in the
Boston Commercial Gazette
, surrounded the building housing Boston's anti-slavery offices, where Garrison had agreed to address a meeting of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society after the fiery British abolitionist
George Thompson
was unable to keep his engagement with them. Mayor
Theodore Lyman
persuaded the women to leave the building, but when the mob learned that Thompson was not within, they began yelling for Garrison. Lyman was a staunch anti-abolitionist but wanted to avoid bloodshed and suggested Garrison escape by a back window while Lyman told the crowd Garrison was gone.
[17]
The mob spotted and apprehended Garrison, tied a rope around his waist, and pulled him through the streets towards
Boston Common
, calling for
tar and feathers
. The mayor intervened and Garrison was taken to the
Leverett Street Jail
for protection.
[18]
Gallows were erected in front of his house, and he was
burned in effigy
.
[19]
The woman question and division
Garrison's appeal for women's mass petitioning against slavery sparked controversy over women's right to a political voice. In 1837, women abolitionists from seven states convened in New York to expand their petitioning efforts and repudiate the social mores that proscribed their participation in public affairs. That summer, sisters
Angelina Grimke
and
Sarah Grimke
responded to the controversy aroused by their public speaking with treatises on woman's rights – Angelina's "Letters to Catherine E. Beecher"
[20]
and Sarah's "Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and Condition of Woman"
[21]
– and Garrison published them first in
The Liberator
and then in book form. Instead of surrendering to appeals for him to retreat on the "woman question," Garrison announced in December 1837 that
The Liberator
would support "the rights of woman to their utmost extent." The Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society appointed women to leadership positions and hired Abby Kelley as the first of several female field agents.
In 1840, Garrison's promotion of woman's rights within the anti-slavery movement was one of the issues that caused some abolitionists, including New York brothers
Arthur Tappan
and
Lewis Tappan
, to leave the AAS and form the
American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society
, which did not admit women. In June of that same year, when the
World Anti-Slavery Convention
meeting in London refused to seat America's women delegates, Garrison,
Charles Lenox Remond
,
Nathaniel P. Rogers
, and William Adams
[22]
refused to take their seats as delegates as well and joined the women in the spectators' gallery. The controversy introduced the woman's rights question not only to England but also to future woman's rights leader
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
, who attended the convention as a spectator, accompanying her delegate-husband,
Henry B. Stanton
.
Although Henry Stanton had cooperated in the Tappans' failed attempt to wrest leadership of the AAS from Garrison, he was part of another group of abolitionists unhappy with Garrison's influence – those who disagreed with Garrison's insistence that because the U.S. Constitution was a pro-slavery document, abolitionists should not participate in politics and government. A growing number of abolitionists, including Stanton,
Gerrit Smith
,
Charles Turner Torrey
, and
Amos A. Phelps
, wanted to form an anti-slavery political party and seek a political solution to slavery. They withdrew from the AAS in 1840, formed the
Liberty Party
, and nominated
James G. Birney
for president. By the end of 1840, Garrison announced the formation of a third new organization, the
Friends of Universal Reform
, with sponsors and founding members including prominent reformers
Maria Chapman
,
Abby Kelley Foster
,
Oliver Johnson
, and
Amos Bronson Alcott
(father of
Louisa May Alcott
).
[
citation needed
]
Although some members of the Liberty Party supported woman's rights, including
women's suffrage
, Garrison's
Liberator
continued to be the leading advocate of woman's rights throughout the 1840s, publishing editorials, speeches, legislative reports, and other developments concerning the subject. In February 1849, Garrison's name headed the women's suffrage petition sent to the Massachusetts legislature, the first such petition sent to any American legislature, and he supported the subsequent annual suffrage petition campaigns organized by Lucy Stone and Wendell Phillips. Garrison took a leading role in the May 30, 1850, meeting that called the first National Woman's Rights Convention, saying in his address to that meeting that the new movement should make securing the ballot to women its primary goal.
[23]
At the national convention held in Worcester the following October, Garrison was appointed to the National Woman's Rights Central Committee, which served as the movement's executive committee, charged with carrying out programs adopted by the conventions, raising funds, printing proceedings and tracts, and organizing annual conventions.
[24]
Controversy
In 1849, Garrison became involved in one of Boston's most notable trials of the time.
Washington Goode
, a black seaman, had been sentenced to death for the murder of a fellow black mariner, Thomas Harding. In
The Liberator
Garrison argued that the verdict relied on "circumstantial evidence of the most flimsy character ..." and feared that the determination of the government to uphold its decision to execute Goode was based on race. As all other death sentences since 1836 in Boston had been commuted, Garrison concluded that Goode would be the last person executed in Boston for a capital offense writing, "Let it not be said that the last man Massachusetts bore to hang was a colored man!"
[25]
Despite the efforts of Garrison and many other prominent figures of the time, Goode was hanged on May 25, 1849.
Garrison became famous as one of the most articulate, as well as most radical, opponents of slavery. His approach to emancipation stressed "moral suasion," non-violence, and passive resistance. While some other abolitionists of the time favored gradual emancipation, Garrison argued for the "immediate and complete emancipation of all slaves." On July 4, 1854, he publicly burned a copy of the Constitution, condemning it as "a Covenant with Death, an Agreement with Hell," referring to the compromise that had written slavery into the Constitution.
[26]
In 1855, his eight-year alliance with
Frederick Douglass
disintegrated when Douglass converted to classical liberal legal theorist and abolitionist
Lysander Spooner's
view (dominant among political abolitionists) that the Constitution could be interpreted as being anti-slavery.
[27]
The events in
John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
, followed by Brown's
trial and execution
, were closely followed in
The Liberator
. Garrison had Brown's last speech, in court, printed as a broadside, available in the
Liberator
office.
Garrison's outspoken anti-slavery views repeatedly put him in danger. Besides his imprisonment in Baltimore and the price placed on his head by the state of
Georgia
, he was the object of vituperation and frequent death threats.
[28]
On the eve of the Civil War, a sermon preached in a Universalist chapel in
Brooklyn, New York
, denounced "the bloodthirsty sentiments of Garrison and his school; and did not wonder that the feeling of the South was exasperated, taking as they did, the insane and bloody ravings of the Garrisonian traitors for the fairly expressed opinions of the North."
[29]
After abolition
After the United States abolished slavery, Garrison announced in May 1865 that he would resign the presidency of the
American Anti-Slavery Society
and offered a resolution declaring victory in the struggle against slavery and dissolving the society. The resolution prompted a sharp debate, however, led by his long-time friend
Wendell Phillips
, who argued that the mission of the AAS was not fully completed until black Southerners gained full political and civil equality. Garrison maintained that while complete civil equality was vitally important, the special task of the AAS was at an end, and that the new task would best be handled by new organizations and new leadership. With his long-time allies deeply divided, however, he was unable to muster the support he needed to carry the resolution, and it was defeated 118?48. Declaring that his "vocation as an Abolitionist, thank God, has ended," Garrison resigned the presidency and declined an appeal to continue. Returning home to
Boston
, he withdrew completely from the AAS and ended publication of
The Liberator
at the end of 1865. With Wendell Phillips at its head, the AAS continued to operate for five more years, until the ratification of the
Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
granted voting rights to black men. (According to
Henry Mayer
, Garrison was hurt by the rejection, and remained peeved for years; "as the cycle came around, always managed to tell someone that he was
not
going to the next set of [AAS] meetings" [594].)
[
citation needed
]
After his withdrawal from AAS and ending
The Liberator
, Garrison continued to participate in public reform movements. He supported the causes of
civil rights
for
blacks
and woman's rights, particularly the campaign for suffrage. He contributed columns on
Reconstruction
and civil rights for
The Independent
and
The Boston Journal
.
[
citation needed
]
In 1870, he became an associate editor of the women's suffrage newspaper, the
Woman's Journal
, along with
Mary Livermore
,
Thomas Wentworth Higginson
,
Lucy Stone
, and
Henry B. Blackwell
. He served as president of both the
American Woman Suffrage Association
(AWSA) and the Massachusetts Woman Suffrage Association. He was a major figure in New England's woman suffrage campaigns during the 1870s.
[30]
In 1873, he healed his long estrangements from
Frederick Douglass
and
Wendell Phillips
, affectionately reuniting with them on the platform at an AWSA rally organized by Abby Kelly Foster and Lucy Stone on the one-hundredth anniversary of the
Boston Tea Party
.
[31]
When
Charles Sumner
died in 1874, some Republicans suggested Garrison as a possible successor to his Senate seat; Garrison declined on grounds of his moral opposition to taking office.
[32]
Antisemitism
Garrison called the
ancient Jews
an exclusivist people "whose feet ran to evil" and suggested that the
Jewish diaspora
was the result of their own "egotism and self-complacency."
[33]
[34]
When the Jewish-American sheriff and writer
Mordecai Manuel Noah
defended slavery, Garrison attacked Noah as "the miscreant Jew" and "the enemy of Christ and liberty." On other occasions, Garrison described Noah as a "Shylock" and as "the lineal descendant of the monsters who nailed Jesus to the cross."
[35]
[36]
Later life and death
Garrison spent more time at home with his family. He wrote weekly letters to his children and cared for his increasingly ill wife, Helen. She had suffered a small stroke on December 30, 1863, and was increasingly confined to the house. Helen died on January 25, 1876, after a severe cold worsened into
pneumonia
. A quiet funeral was held in the Garrison home. Garrison, overcome with grief and confined to his bedroom with a fever and severe
bronchitis
, was unable to join the service.
Wendell Phillips
gave a eulogy and many of Garrison's old abolitionist friends joined him upstairs to offer their private condolences.
[
citation needed
]
Garrison recovered slowly from the loss of his wife and began to attend
Spiritualist
circles in the hope of communicating with Helen.
[37]
Garrison last visited England in 1877, where he met with
George Thompson
and other longtime friends from the British abolitionist movement.
[38]
Suffering from
kidney disease
, Garrison continued to weaken during April 1879. He moved to New York to live with his daughter Fanny's family. In late May, his condition worsened, and his five surviving children rushed to join him. Fanny asked if he would enjoy singing some hymns. Although he was unable to sing, his children sang favorite hymns while he beat time with his hands and feet. On May 24, 1879, Garrison lost consciousness and died just before midnight.
[39]
Garrison was buried in the
Forest Hills Cemetery
in Boston's
Jamaica Plain
neighborhood on May 28, 1879. At the public memorial service, eulogies were given by
Theodore Dwight Weld
and
Wendell Phillips
. Eight abolitionist friends, both white and black, served as his pallbearers. Flags were flown at half-staff all across
Boston
.
[40]
Frederick Douglass
, then employed as a
United States Marshal
, spoke in memory of Garrison at a memorial service in a church in Washington, D.C., saying, "It was the glory of this man that he could stand alone with the truth, and calmly await the result."
[41]
Garrison's namesake son, William Lloyd Garrison Jr. (1838?1909), was a prominent advocate of the
single tax
, free trade, women's suffrage, and of the repeal of the
Chinese Exclusion Act
. His third son,
Wendell Phillips Garrison
(1840?1907), was literary editor of
The Nation
from 1865 to 1906. Two other sons (George Thompson Garrison and Francis Jackson Garrison, his biographer and named after abolitionist
Francis Jackson
) and a daughter,
Helen Frances Garrison
(who married
Henry Villard
), survived him. Fanny's son
Oswald Garrison Villard
became a prominent journalist, a founding member of the
NAACP
, and wrote an important biography of the abolitionist
John Brown
.
Legacy
Leo Tolstoy
was greatly influenced by the works of Garrison and his contemporary
Adin Ballou
, as their writings on Christian anarchism aligned with Tolstoy's burgeoning theo-political ideology. Along with Tolstoy publishing a short biography of Garrison in 1904, he frequently cited Garrison and his works in his non-fiction texts like
The Kingdom of God Is Within You
. In a 2018 publication, American philosopher and anarchist
Crispin Sartwell
wrote that the works by Garrison and his other Christian anarchist contemporaries like Ballou directly influenced
Mahatma Gandhi
and
Martin Luther King Jr.
, as well.
[42]
Memorials
- Boston installed a memorial to Garrison on the mall of
Commonwealth Avenue
.
- In 2005 Garrison was inducted into the
National Abolition Hall of Fame
, in
Peterboro, New York
.
- In December 2005, to honor Garrison's 200th birthday, his descendants gathered in Boston for the first family reunion in about a century. They discussed the legacy and influence of their most notable family member.
- A shared-use path along the John Greenleaf Whittier Bridge and
Interstate 95
between
Newburyport
and
Amesbury
,
Massachusetts
, was named in honor of Garrison. The 2-mile trail opened in 2018 after the new bridge was completed.
[43]
Works
Books
Pamphlets
- Garrison, Wm. Lloyd
(1830).
A brief sketch of the trial of William Lloyd Garrison : for an alleged libel on Francis Todd, of Massachusetts
. 8 pp. [Baltimore].
- Garrison, Wm. Lloyd
(1831).
An address, delivered before the free people of color, in Philadelphia, New-York, and other cities, during the month of June, 1831
. 24 pp. (2nd ed.). Boston: Boston, Printed by S. Foster.
- Garrison, Wm. Lloyd
(1832).
An Address on the Progress of the Abolition Cause; delivered before the African Abolition Freehold Society of Boston, July 16, 1832
. 24 pp. Boston:
Garrison and Knapp
.
- Garrison, Wm. Lloyd
(1834).
A brief sketch of the trial of William Lloyd Garrison, for an alleged libel on Francis Todd, of Newburyport, Mass
. 26 pp. Boston:
Garrison and Knapp
.
- Garrison, Wm. Lloyd
(1838).
An Address Delivered in Marlboro Chapel, July 4, 1838
. Boston:
Isaac Knapp
. Archived from
the original
on July 20, 2008.
- Proceedings of a crowded meeting of the colored population of Boston, assembled the 15th July, 1846, for the purpose of bidding farewell to William Lloyd Garrison, on his departure for England : with his speech on the occasion
. Dublin. 1846.
Broadside
- Garrison, Wm. Lloyd
(1830).
Proposals for publishing a weekly paper in Washington, D.C. to be entitled the Liberator, and journal of the times
. Baltimore?. Archived from
the original
on October 23, 2020
. Retrieved
June 9,
2021
.
Archived
October 23, 2020, at the
Wayback Machine
- Brown, John
(1859).
Address of John Brown to the Virginia Court, when about to receive the Sentence of Death, for his heroic attempt at Harper's Ferry, to give deliverence to the captives, and to let the oppressed go free
. Boston:
Wm. Lloyd Garrison
.
Newspapers
- Address at Park Street Church, Boston, July 4, 1829
(Garrison's first major public statement; an extensive statement of egalitarian principle).
- The Liberator, January 1, 1831 ? December 29, 1865
Archived
January 5, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine
.
- To the Public
(Garrison's introductory column for
The Liberator
, ? January 1, 1831).
- Truisms
Archived
May 1, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
(
The Liberator
, January 8, 1831).
- The Insurrection
Archived
May 1, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
(Garrison's reaction to news of
Nat Turner
's rebellion, ?
The Liberator
, September 3, 1831).
- On the Constitution and the Union
(
The Liberator
, December 29, 1832).
- Abolition at the Ballot Box
Archived
February 18, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
(
The Liberator
, June 28, 1839).
- The American Union
Archived
May 1, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
(
The Liberator
, January 10, 1845).
- No Union With Slaveholders
at the
Wayback Machine
(archive index)
[
dead link
]
(September 24, 1855).
- The Tragedy at Harper's Ferry
Archived
February 18, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
, (
The Liberator
, October 28, 1859).
- John Brown and the Principle of Nonresistance
Archived
October 14, 2007, at the
Wayback Machine
(Speech in the
Tremont Temple
, Boston, December 2, 1859, ? the day Brown was hanged ?
The Liberator
, December 16, 1859).
- The War ? Its Cause and Cure
Archived
December 30, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine
(
The Liberator
, May 3, 1861).
- Valedictory: The Final Number of
The Liberator
Archived
February 18, 2006, at the
Wayback Machine
(
The Liberator
, December 29, 1865).
- The Liberator Files
(Horace Seldon's summary of research of Garrison's
The Liberator
)
- William Lloyd Garrison works
(Cornell University Library Samuel J. May Anti-Slavery Collection)
- William Lloyd Garrison works
(Cornell University Digital Library Collections).
- William Lloyd Garrison on non-resistance : together with a personal sketch by his daughter Fanny Garrison Villard and a tribute by Leo Tolstoy
- Reading Garrison's Letters
(Horace Seldon's insight into the thought, work and life of Garrison, ? based on "Letters of William Lloyd Garrison", Belknap Press of Harvard University, W. M. Merrill and L. Ruchames Editors).
- Thomas, John L. (1963).
The Liberator: William Lloyd Garrison, A Biography
. Boston:
Little, Brown
.
See also
References
- ^
Chapman, John Jay (1921).
William Lloyd Garrison
. Boston:
Atlantic Monthly Press
.
- ^
Ehrlich, Eugene
; Carruth, Gorton (1982).
The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States
. New York:
Oxford University Press
. p. 53.
ISBN
0195031865
.
- ^
Mayer, 12
- ^
Hagedorn, p. 58
- ^
Cain, William E.
William Lloyd Garrison and the fight against Slavery: Selections from the Liberator
.
- ^
"William Watkins MSA SC 5496-002535"
.
msa.maryland.gov
.
Archived
from the original on June 12, 2020
. Retrieved
May 20,
2020
.
- ^
Thomas, 119
- ^
Masur, Louis (2001).
1831, Year of Eclipse
(7th ed.). New York: Hill and Wang.
ISBN
978-0809041183
.
- ^
Dinius, Marcy J. (2018).
"Press"
.
Early American Studies
.
16
(4): 747?755.
doi
:
10.1353/eam.2018.0045
.
S2CID
246013692
.
Archived
from the original on May 2, 2019
. Retrieved
July 31,
2020
– via
Project MUSE
.
- ^
Boston Directory
, 1831,
archived
from the original on March 27, 2016
, retrieved
December 11,
2015
,
Garrison & Knapp, editors and proprietors Liberator, 10 Merchants Hall, Congress Street
- ^
William Lloyd Garrison,
The Liberator
(Inaugural editorial)
Archived
March 29, 2004, at the
Wayback Machine
- ^
"William Lloyd Garrison"
.
prezi.com
. Retrieved
April 3,
2020
.
- ^
"Death of Isaac Knapp"
.
theliberatorfiles.com
. Retrieved
October 30,
2021
.
- ^
Valedictory (1865-12-29): by William Lloyd Garrison
Archived
2006-02-18 at the
Wayback Machine
. The first part of the column included the following: "Commencing my editorial career when only twenty years of age, I have followed it continuously till I have attained my sixtieth year – first, in connection with
The Free Press
, in Newburyport, in the spring of 1826; next, with
The National Philanthropist
, in Boston, in 1827; next, with
The Journal of the Times
, in Bennington, Vt., in 1828?29; next, with
The Genius of Universal Emancipation
, in Baltimore, in 1829?30; and, finally, with the
Liberator
, in Boston, from January 1, 1831, to January 1, 1866 ? at the start, probably the youngest member of the editorial fraternity in the land, now, perhaps, the oldest, not in years, but continuous service, ? unless
Mr. Bryant
, of the
New York
Evening Post
, be an exception. ..."
- ^
Quoted in: Clifton E. Olmstead (1960):
History of Religion in the United States
. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., p. 369
- ^
David Brion Davis,
Inhuman Bondage. The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World
, Oxford University Press, 2006,
ISBN
0195140737
, p. 263.
- ^
Mayer, 201?204
- ^
"Boston Gentlemen Riot for Slavery"
.
New England Historical Society
.
Archived
from the original on December 29, 2019
. Retrieved
October 5,
2019
.
- ^
Jackson, Holly (2019).
American radicals : how nineteenth-century protest shaped the nation
. New York:
Crown
. pp. 14, 71?72.
ISBN
978-0525573098
.
- ^
"Letters to Catherine E. Beecher"
, Knapp (1838), Boston
- ^
"Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and Condition of Woman"
Archived
2016-04-02 at the
Wayback Machine
, Knapp (1838), Boston
- ^
Seldon, Horace.
"The 'Women's Question' and Garrison"
.
The liberator files
.
Archived
from the original on December 14, 2014
. Retrieved
December 9,
2014
.
- ^
"Women's Rights Convention,"
Liberator
, June 7, 1850
- ^
Million, Joelle,
Woman's Voice, Woman's Place: Lucy Stone and the Birth of the Women's Rights Movement.
Praeger, 2003.
ISBN
027597877X
, pp. 104, 109, 293 note 26.
- ^
Garrison, William Lloyd (March 30, 1849).
"Shall He Be Hung?"
.
The Liberator
. p. 2 – via newspapers.com.
- ^
Finkelman, Paul
(Winter 2000).
"Garrison's Constitution. The Covenant with Death and How It Was Made"
.
Prologue Magazine
.
32
(4).
- ^
Spooner, Lysander (1845).
"The Unconstitutionality of Slavery"
.
- ^
"William L. Garrison"
.
www.ohiohistorycentral.org
. Ohio History Central
. Retrieved
November 10,
2017
.
- ^
Brooklyn Daily Eagle
, Dec. 31, 1860, p. 3; the paper pronounced this an "admirable discourse."
- ^
, Merk, Lois Bannister, "Massachusetts and the Woman Suffrage Movement." Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1958, Revised, 1961, pp. 14, 25.
- ^
Mayer, 614
- ^
Mayer, 618
- ^
Michael, Robert; Rosen, Philip (2007).
Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present
. lanham, Maryland / Toronto / Plymouth, UK: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. p. 173.
ISBN
978-0810858626
.
- ^
Garrison, William Lloyd; Ruchames, Louis; Merrill, Walter M. (1981).
The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison. Edited by Walter M. Merrill and Louis Ruchames
. Cambridge, Mass., Belknap press of Harvard university press. p. 429.
ISBN
978-0-674-52666-2
.
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
link
)
- ^
"Who cares if Bernie Sanders is Jewish?"
.
WHYY
. Retrieved
May 7,
2022
.
- ^
"The Powerful Example Of The Jewish Abolitionists We Forgot"
.
The Forward
. January 30, 2015
. Retrieved
May 7,
2022
.
- ^
Mayer, 621
- ^
Mayer, 622
- ^
Mayer, 626
- ^
Mayer, 627?628
- ^
Mayer, 631
- ^
Sartwell, Crispin (January 1, 2018).
"Anarchism and Nineteenth-Century American Political Thought"
.
Brill's Companion to Anarchism and Philosophy
: 454?483.
doi
:
10.1163/9789004356894_018
.
ISBN
978-9004356887
.
- ^
"Garrison Trail opens this afternoon"
. October 18, 2018.
Archived
from the original on May 7, 2019
. Retrieved
July 31,
2020
.
Bibliography
- Abzug, Robert H.
Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination
. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
ISBN
0195037529
.
- Dal Lago, Enrico.
William Lloyd Garrison and Giuseppe Mazzini: Abolition, Democracy, and Radical Reform.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2013.
- Grimke, Archibald Henry
(1891).
William Lloyd Garrison, the abolitionist
. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
- Hagedorn, Ann.
Beyond The River: The Untold Story of the Heroes of the Underground Railroad
. Simon & Schuster, 2002.
ISBN
0684870657
.
- Hummel, Jeff (2008).
"Garrison, William Lloyd (1805?1879)"
. In
Hamowy, Ronald
(ed.).
The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism
. Thousand Oaks, California:
Sage
;
Cato Institute
. pp. 203?204.
doi
:
10.4135/9781412965811.n121
.
ISBN
978-1412965804
.
LCCN
2008009151
.
OCLC
750831024
.
- Mayer, Henry
(1998).
All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery
. New York:
St. Martin's Press
.
- McDaniel, W. Caleb
.
The Problem of Democracy in the Age of Slavery: Garrisonian Abolitionists and Transatlantic Reform.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2013.
- Laurie, Bruce
Beyond Garrison
. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
ISBN
0521605172
.
- Rodriguez, Junius P., ed.
Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World
. (Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2007)
- Stewart, James Brewer (2008). "William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips, and the Symmetry of Autobiography: Charisma and the Character of Abolitionist Leadership".
Abolitionist Politics and the Coming of the Civil War
.
University of Massachusetts Press
. pp. 89?109.
ISBN
978-1558496354
– via
Project MUSE
.
- Thomas, John L.
The Liberator: William Lloyd Garrison, A Biography.
Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1963.
ISBN
1597401854
.
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