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West Atlantic languages

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Atlantic languages" redirects here. For Theo Vennemann's Semitic superstratum theory, see Atlantic (Semitic) languages . For Segerer's pared-down family, see Senegambian languages .
West Atlantic
Atlantic
(obsolete)
Geographic
distribution 		Westernmost Africa
Linguistic classification Niger?Congo ?
Glottolog None

The West Atlantic languages (also the Atlantic languages [note 1] or North Atlantic languages [1] ) of West Africa are a major subgroup of the Niger?Congo languages .

The Atlantic languages are spoken along the Atlantic coast from Senegal to Liberia , though transhumant Fula speakers have spread eastward and are found in large numbers across the Sahel , from Senegal to Nigeria , Cameroon and Sudan . Wolof of Senegal and several of the Fula languages are the most populous Atlantic languages, with several million speakers each. Other significant members include Serer and the Jola dialect cluster of Senegal. Temne , a major language of Sierra Leone , was included in the Atlantic subgroup in earlier classifications but in modern proposals, it is no longer grouped within Atlantic.

Most Atlantic languages exhibit consonant mutation and have noun-class systems similar to those of the distantly related Bantu languages . Some languages are tonal , while others such as Wolof have pitch-accent systems. The basic word order tends to be SVO .

Classification and scope [ edit ]

Traditional classification [ edit ]

The Atlantic family was first identified by Sigismund Koelle in 1854. In the early 20th century, Carl Meinhof claimed that Fula was a Hamitic language, but August von Klingenhaben and Joseph Greenberg 's work established Fula's close relationship with Wolof and Serer. W. A. A. Wilson notes that the validity of the family as a whole rests on much weaker evidence, though it is clear that the languages are part of the Niger?Congo family, based on evidence such as a shared noun-class system. However, comparative work on Niger?Congo is in its infancy. Classifications of Niger?Congo, usually based on lexicostatistics , generally propose that the various Atlantic languages are rather divergent, but less so than Mande and other languages that lack noun classes.

David Sapir (1971) proposed a classification of Atlantic into three branches, a northern group, a southern group, and the divergent Bijago language of the Bissagos Islands off the coast of Guinea-Bissau : [2]

Sapir's classification is widely cited in handbooks on African linguistics (e.g. Bender 1989, Williamson & Blench 2000), and is also used in the Ethnologue (22nd ed., 2019).

Recent proposals [ edit ]

The unity of the Atlantic languages?as traditionally defined?has long been questioned, e.g. Dalby (1965), who argued for the Mel languages as a primary branch of Niger?Congo. At the current state of research, the wide concept of Atlantic (i.e. including the Southern languages) within the Niger?Congo family is no longer held up. [3]

Segerer (2010, 2016 [4] ) and Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017) propose a narrowed-down version of the Atlantic languages by excluding all languages of the southern branch, which they treat as four primary branches (viz. Sua, Limba, Gola, and the Mel languages) within the Niger?Congo family. The Bak languages are split from the northern languages as a coordinate subbranch within Atlantic (in the narrow sense). Bijago is assigned to the Bak languages.

Guldemann (2018) goes even further, and also treats Nalu and Mbulungish ? Baga Mboteni (" Rio Nunez ") as unclassified first-order branches of Niger?Congo. [5]

Vossen & Dimmendaal (2020) [ edit ]

Revised classification of the Atlantic languages (Vossen & Dimmendaal 2020:166, [6] from Pozdniakov & Segerer [7] ):

  • Atlantic
    • North
      • Wolof: Wolof, Lebu
      • Nyun-Buy
        • Nyun (Gunyaamolo, Gujaher, Gubeeher, etc.)
        • Buy (Kasanga, Kobiana)
      • Tenda-Jaad
        • Tenda: Basari, Tanda, Bedik, Bapen; Konyagi
        • Jaad: Biafada; Badiaranke
      • Fula-Sereer
        • Fula (Pular, Pulaar, Fulfulde, etc.)
        • Sereer
      • Cangin
        • Palor, Ndut
        • Noon, Laala, Saafi
      • Nalu
        • Nalu
        • Bage Fore
        • Baga Mboteni
    • Bak
      • Balant: Ganja, Kentohe, Fraase
      • Joola-Manjaku
        • Joola: Fogny, Banjal, Kasa, Kwaatay, Karon, Ejamat, Keeraak, etc.; Bayot ?
        • Manjaku
        • Bok, Cur, Bassarel
        • Pepel
        • Mankanya
      • Bijogo: Kamona, Kagbaaga, Kajoko

Merrill (2021) [ edit ]

Merrill (2021) proposes that Atlantic (or North Atlantic) is not a valid subgroup of Niger-Congo, but rather considers each of the established Atlantic "branches" to all be primary branches of Niger-Congo. Furthermore, Merrill suggests that due to the divergence of the Atlantic languages, the homeland of Niger-Congo may lie in the northwest of sub-Saharan Africa. [1]

  • North Atlantic geographical area
    • Fula-Sereer (branch)
      • Fula
      • Sereer
    • Cangin
    • Wolof
    • Bainunk-Kobiana-Kasanga (branch)
      • Kobiana
      • Gujaher
      • Gubeeher
      • Gunaamolo
    • Biafada-Pajade (branch)
      • Pajade
      • Biafada
    • Tenda (branch)
      • Konyagi
      • Bassari
      • Bedik
    • Bak (branch)
      • Joola
      • Manjak
      • Balanta
    • Bijogo (branch)

Merrill (2021) also notes that Tenda and Biafada-Pajade share similarities with each other, and may possibly form a linkage .

Reconstruction [ edit ]

Proto-Atlantic lexical innovations reconstructed by Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017): [8]

Gloss Proto-Atlantic
star *k???
to fly *yii?
to die *ke?
to rot *p??
three *ta?
eye *gi?
liver *he?
feather *lung
hair *wal
baobab *bak ~ *?ak
to see *jok (?)
tree trunk *dik
to give birth *was / *bas

Wilson (2007:36) also proposed the tentative Proto-Atlantic reconstructions: [9]

Gloss Proto-Atlantic
head *kop
ear *nop
eye *kit
mouth *tum

Sample Atlantic cognate sets: [8]

Language ‘eye’ ‘liver’ ‘feather’ ‘hair’ ‘baobab’ ‘to see’ ‘tree trunk’ ‘to give birth’
Proto-Atlantic *gi? *he? *lung *wal *b/?ak *jok? *dik *w/bas
Tenda-Jaad *g?? *cee? *d???ngw *mbal ?ak jeek? *bas
Fula-Sereer *git xee? wiil ?aak/?ok jak lek- ?as-il
Nyun-Buy *gi? k??? lung b?k njug? leex/rien b?s
Wolof -?t dung *-war jakk w?s-in
Cangin *??? *k??? ?a?/??h *dik ??s
Nalu cet b??k y?k dik/lik
Joola ki? h??? *wal bak j?k n?k-an β?s
Manjak *ki? *-?? lung *w?l bak j?k bas
Balant *kit/git h???????? wul/hul ndiŋa/ndiik
Bijogo ŋ? runk- wa joŋ nik-an -gb?a

Reconstructions for indivuadal West Atlantic branches can be found in Merrill (2021). [1]

Numerals [ edit ]

Comparison of numerals in individual languages: [10]

Classification Language 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Senegambian, Serer Sereer-Sine (1) leŋ ?ik tadik nahik ?etik ?etaa fo leŋ (5 + 1) ?etaa ?ak (5 + 2) ?etaa tadak (5 + 3) ?etaa nahak (5 + 4) xar?axaay
Senegambian, Serer Serer-Sine (2) leŋ ?ik tadik nahik ?edik ?etuː fa leŋ (5 + 1) ?etuː ?ik (5 + 2) ?etuː tadik (5 + 3) ?etuː nahik (5 + 4) xar?axay
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof Wolof b?n: ?aːr ??tː ??nt d?uroːm d?uroːm b?n: (5 + 1) d?uroːm ?aːr (5 + 2) d?uroːm ??tː (5 + 3) d?uroːm ??nt (5 + 4) fukː
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof CE Niger Fulfulde ?????? ?i?i tati nai ?oe ?oe ???l (5 + 1) ?oe ?i?i (5 + 2) ?oe tati (5 + 3) ?oe nai (5 + 4) sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof Western Niger Fulfulde ?o?o ?i?i tati naj d??oj d??ee?om (5 + 1) d??e??i (5 + 2) d??eetati (5 + 3) d??eenaj (5 + 4) sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof Adamawa Fulfulde ?o?o ?i?i tati naj d??owi d??oweː?o (5 + 1) d??oweː?i?i (5 + 2) d??oweːtati (5 + 3) d??oweːnaj (5 + 4) sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof Fulfulde Maasina ?o?o ?i?i tati naj d??oj d??eː?om (5 + 1) d??e?:i (5 + 2) d??et:i (5 + 3) d??eːnaj (5 + 4) sap:o
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof Pular ?ooto / ?oo ?i?i tati naj d??owi d??ee?o (5 + 1) d??ee?i?i (5 + 2) d??eetati (5 + 3) d??eenaj (5 + 4) sappo
Senegambian, Fula-Wolof Pulaar ?oo ?i?i tati naj d??oj d??ee?om (5 + 1) d??ee?i?i (5 + 2) d??eetati (5 + 3) d??eenaj (5 + 4) sappo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun Bainounk Gubeeher -nduk -na:k -lal: -rendek cilax (lit: hand ) cilax aŋ?a -nduk cilax aŋ?a -na:k cilax aŋ?a -lal: cilax aŋ?a -r?nd?k ha:lax (litː feet )
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun Gunyaamolo Banyun (1) uŋ?onduk hanakk halall har?n?k h?m?kila h?m?kila iŋ?i uŋ?onduk h?m?kila iŋ?i hanakk h?m?kila iŋ?i halall h?m?kila iŋ?i har?n?k haala (litː hands)
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Banyun Gunyaamolo Banyun (2) -duk -nak -lall -r?n?k -m?kila -m?kila iŋ?i -duk (5 + 1) -m?kila iŋ?i -nak (5 + 2) -m?kila iŋ?i -lall (5 + 3) -m?kila iŋ?i -r?n?k (5 + 4) ha-lah (litː hands)
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun Kasanga (Cassanga) -t??na -naandiid -taar -sanna? juroo? juroo? -t??na (5 + 1) juroo? -naandiid (5 + 2) ?asansanna (cf. 'four') juroo? -sanna? (5 + 4) ŋaaroo? (litː 'fives')
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Nun Kobiana -tee(na) -naŋ -teeh -sannaŋ juroo? juroo? -tee(na) (5 + 1) juroo? -tee(na) + ? (5 + 1 + x) sannaŋ sannaŋ (4 + 4) sannaŋ sannaŋ + ? (4 + 4 + x) ntaaja
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda Badyara pain? / pakka maae mat??aw manne kob?da kob?da ŋka-in? (5 + 1) kob?da ŋka maae (5 + 2) kob?da ŋka mat??aw (5 + 3) kob?da ŋka manne (5 + 4) pappo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda Oniyan (Bassari) im?t ??ki ??t?s ??n?x ????? ?????ŋ?im?t (5 + 1) ?????ŋ????ki (5 + 2) ?????ŋ????t?s (5 + 3) ?????ŋ????n?x (5 + 4) ?p?xw
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda Biafada (1) n?mma bihe bi?o bini ??b?da mpaa?i mpaa?i ŋ?a ?i (6 + ?i) wase leberebo bapo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda Biafada (2) -nn?mma -ke -jo -nnihi ??b?da mpaaji mpaaji nyi (6 + nyi) wose liberebo ba-ppo
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda Budik (Tenda) riye, diye, iye xi, ki sas, tas maxala, maxana co(nje) co n?? iye (5 + 1) co n?? xi (5 + 2) co n?? sas (5 + 3) co n?? maxala (5 + 4) ipox
Eastern Senegal-Guinea, Tenda Wamey (Konyagi) rj?mp? w?hi w?r?r w?r??h mb?? mb?? ?? rj?w? (5 + 1) mb?? ?? w?hi (5 + 2) mb?? ?? w?r?r (5 + 3) mb?? ?? w?n?h (5 + 4) p?hw
Bijago Bijago (Bijogo) n??d n-som ?-???k? ya-a??n?k n-de?k? (n-de?k?) na n??d (5 + 1) (n-de?k?) ni n-som (5 + 2) (n-de?k?) ni ?-???k? (5 + 3) (n-de?k?) na ya-a??n?k (5 + 4) n-ruak?
Bak, Balant-Ganja Balanta-Ganja -woda -sibi -aabi -tahla -jiif faaj faajin?ooda (6 + 1) ? taataala (2 x 4) ? -jintahla (5 + 4) ? -jimmin
Bak, Balant-Ganja Balanta-Kentohe fho:dn / ho:dn ksibm khobm ktahli t???f (litː hand ) t???f k? fhdon (5 + 1) t???f k? ksibm (5 + 2) t???f k? khobm (5 + 3) t???f k? ktalhi (5 + 4) t???ːfm?n (litː whole hands )
Bak, Jola, Bayot Bayot ?ndon t????a f?z? iβ?? o?? (litː 'one hand') o??-nen?don ('one hand plus one') o??-ni?????a ('one hand plus two') o??-nif?z? ('one hand plus three') o??-niβ?? ('one hand plus four') ??t?t?? ('two hands' )
Bak, Jola, Bayot Senegal Bayot ?ndon ????ː? i'fe?i ?'β?j ??? (litː 'one hand') ??? n? '?ndon ('one hand plus one') ??? n? '??i?ː? ('one hand plus two') ??? n? i'fe?i ('one hand plus three') ??? n? ?'β?j ('one hand plus four') ?'s?β?k? ('two hands' )
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Bandial j?n?? suːβ? si'f???i s?'b???? f?'t?x f?'t?x n? 'j?n?? (5 + 1) f?'t?x n? 'suːβ? (5 + 2) f?'t?x n? si'f???i (5 + 3) f?'t?x n? s?'b???? (5 + 4) ??'??n (litː hands )
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Gusilay jan?r ? = ? suuβa sifː??i s?bːa??r f?t?x f?t?x n? jan?r (5 + 1) f?t?x n? suuβa (5 + 2) f?t?x n? sifː??i (5 + 3) f?t?x n? s?bːa??r (5 + 4) ????n (litː hands )
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Jola-Fonyi (Dyola) (1) j?kon si?aba sifee?iir sibaakiir fut?k fut?k di j?kon (5 + 1) fut?k di si?aba (5 + 2) fut?k di sifee?iir (5 + 3) fut?k di sibaakiir (5 + 4) u??n
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Jola-Fonyi (Dyola) (2) j?kon si?aba sifee?iir sibaakiir fut?k fut?k di j?kon (5 + 1) fut?k di si?aba (5 + 2) fut?k di sifee?iir (5 + 3) fut?k di sibaakiir (5 + 4) u??n
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Jola-Kaasa j?n? sil?uβ? si'h?ː?i s?'b?k?ː h?'t?k h?'t?k l? 'j?n? (5 + 1) h?'t?k l? 'sil?uβ? (5 + 2) h?'t?k l? si'h?ː?i (5 + 3) h?'t?k l? s?'b?k?ː (5 + 4) k?'ŋ?n (litː hands )
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Karon y?ːn?ːl susup?k sih?ːciːl s?p?ːk?ːl ?s?k ?s?k n? y?ːn?ːl (5 + 1) ?s?k n?ŋ susup?k (5 + 2) ?s?k n?ŋ sih?ːciːl (5 + 3) ?s?k n?ŋ s?p?ːk?ːl (5 + 4) ŋ?ːs?w?n susup?k
Bak, Jola, Jola Proper Kwatay (Kwaataay) hifeeneŋ kusuba kihaaji kibaakir hutok hutok ni hifeeneŋ (5 + 1) hutok nu kusuba (5 + 2) hutok ni kihaaji (5 + 3) hutok ni kibaakir (5 + 4) sumoŋu
Bak, Manjaku-Papel Mankanya ulol??n ŋ??t?p ŋ??wad???nt ŋ?bak?r ka??n pad?? nawuloŋ bak???ŋ ka???ŋkal?ŋ i???n (litː hands)
Bak, Manjaku-Papel Papel o-loŋ ŋ-pu?us ŋ-?en? ŋ-uakr k-?ene paa? ?and bakari k-?eŋ k-loŋ (< 10 - 1 ?) o-dise?ene
Cangin Laalaa (Lehar) wi?ːno?ː k?n?k k?ːh?j niːkiːs j??tu?ːs jitn?ːn?ː (5 + 1) jitn?k?n?k (5 + 2) jitn?k?ːh?j (5 + 3) jitn?niːkiːs (5 + 4) d?ːŋk?h
Cangin Ndut yine [jin?] ana [?ana] eeye [?eey?] iniil [?iniːl] iip [?iːp] peene [?p?ːn?] (5 + 1) paana [?paːna] (5 + 2) peeye [?peːj?] (5 + 3) payniil [?painiːl] (5 + 4) sabboo [?sab?ː]
Cangin Noon ?wiːn?: / ?witn?ː ?kanak ?kaːhaj ?n?k?ːs ?j?tu?ːs j?t?n?ːn?ː (5 + 1) j?tna?kanak (5 + 2) j?tna?kaːhaj (5 + 3) j?tna?n?k?ːs (5 + 4) ?daːŋkah
Cangin Palor (Falor) yino ana eye iniil iip poyno (5 + 1) paana (5 + 2) peeye (5 + 3) payniil (5 + 4) sa?o
Cangin Saafi-Saafi (Safen) ?jiːn? ?kanak? ?kaːhay ?niːkis jaːtus (< 'hand jaːh') ?jiːs na ?jiːno (5 + 1) ?jiːs na ?kanak? (5 + 2) ?jiːs na ?kaːhay (5 + 3) ?jiːs na ?niːkis (5 + 4) ?ndaŋkiaːh
Mbulungish-Nalu Mbulungish (Baga-Fore) kiben ?idi / t?idi ?it?t / t?it?t ?in?ŋ / t?in?ŋ sus? s?kben (5 + 1) s?kdi (5 + 2) s?kt?t (5 + 3) s?kn?ŋ (5 + 4) ?t?l?
Mbulungish-Nalu Nalu (1) deːnd?k bil? paːt biːnaːŋ teːduŋ teːduŋ ti ndeːnd?k (5 + 1) teːduŋ ti bil? (5 + 2) teːduŋ ti paːt (5 + 3) teːduŋ ti biːnaːŋ (5 + 4) t?ːbl? ~ t?b?l?
Mbulungish-Nalu Nalu (2) deendek bil? paat biinaaŋ teedoŋ teedoŋ ti mdeendek (5 + 1) teedoŋ ti bil? (5 + 2) teedoŋ ti paat (5 + 3) teedoŋ ti biinaaŋ (5 + 4) t??bl?
Limba West-Central Limba hant?e kaaye kataati kanaŋ kas?hi kas?ŋ hant?e (5 + 1) kas?ŋ kaaye (5 + 2) kas?ŋ kataati (5 + 3) kas?ŋ kanaŋ (5 + 4) k??hi
Limba East Limba hant?e kale katati kanaŋ kas?hi kas?ŋ hant?e (5 + 1) kas?ŋ kale (5 + 2) kas?ŋ katati (5 + 3) kas?ŋ kanaŋ (5 + 4) k?hi
Sua Mansoanka (Sua) s?n cen b-rar b-nan s?ŋ?un s?ŋ?un d? s?ns?n (5 + 1) s?ŋ?un d? mcen (5 + 2) s?ŋ?un d? mbrar (5 + 3) s?ŋ?un d? mnan (5 + 4) t?ŋi
Mel, Bullom-Kissi Bullom So(Mani) nimbul ninc??ŋ ninra niŋny??l / -ny??l niman m??m-bul (5 + 1) m??nc??ŋ (5 + 2) m??nra (5 + 3) m??nny??l (5 + 4) wam
Mel, Bullom-Kissi Sherbro bul t?ŋ ræ hyo?l o? = French au in aube' m?n m?n-buk (5 + 1) m?n-t?ŋ (5 + 2) m?n-ra (5 + 3) m?n-hyo?l (5 + 4) w?ŋ
Mel, Bullom-Kissi Southern Kissi pil???? muuŋ ŋ?aa hi????lu ŋu????nu ŋ?mpum (5 + 1) ŋ?m??u (5 + 2) ŋ?maa (5 + 3) ŋ?mahi????lu (5 + 4) t??
Mel, Gola Gola ?uuŋ tiyee taai tiinaŋ n????n??ŋ n????n??ŋ die ?uuŋ (5 + 1) n????n??ŋ lee tiyee (5 + 2) n????n??ŋ lee taai (5 + 3) n????n??ŋ lee tiinaŋ (5 + 4) ziiya
Mel, Temne, Baga Baga Mandori piin mar?m masaas maaŋk?l??ŋ k?caam?t k?caamtr tiin (5 + 1) k?caamtr mar?m (5 + 2) k?caamtr masaas (5 + 3) k?caamtr maaŋk?l??ŋ (5 + 4) ocoo
Mel, Temne, Baga Baga Sitemu pin m?r?ŋ maːs / mas maŋk?l? k?t??am?t t??am?tin (5 + 1) t??am?m?r?ŋ (5 + 2) t??am?maːs (5 + 3) t??am?maŋk?l? (5 + 4) w?t???
Mel, Temne, Baga Landoma t??n m??r?ŋ m??sas mank?l? k?cam?t k?c??ntin (5 + 1) k?c??nt? m??r?ŋ (5 + 2) k?c??nt?? m??sas (5 + 3) k?c??nt? mank?l? (5 + 4) pu
Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta Temne (Themne) (1) pin p?r??ŋ p?sas panl? tamat? dukin (5 + 1) d?r??ŋ (5 + 2) d?sas (5 + 3) d?ŋanl? (5 + 4) t?f??t
Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta Temne (Themne) (2) pin p??r??ŋ p??sas panl?? tamaθ dukin (5 + 1) d??r??ŋ (5 + 2) d??sas (5 + 3) d??ŋanl?? (5 + 4) t??f??t
Mel, Temne, Temne-Banta Temne (Themne) (3) p-in p?-r?ŋ p?-sas p-aŋl? tamath tamath rukin (5 + 1) tamath d?r?ŋ (5 + 2) tamath r?sasa (5 + 3) tamath r?ŋaŋl? (5 + 4) t?f?t

Notes [ edit ]

  1. ^ "West Atlantic" is the traditional term, following Diedrich Hermann Westermann ; "Atlantic" is more typical in recent work, particularly since Bendor-Samuel (1989), but is also used specifically for the northern branch of West Atlantic.

References [ edit ]

Citations [ edit ]

  1. ^ a b c Merrill, Jack (2021-11-06). Cognate noun class markers between Northern Atlantic groups and Benue-Congo (PDF) . Diedrich Westermann-Workshop . Humboldt University of Berlin. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-08-29. {{ cite conference }} : CS1 maint: date and year ( link )
  2. ^ Sapir (1971) , pp. 48?49.
  3. ^ Guldemann (2018) , pp. 180?183.
  4. ^ Segerer, Guillaume (Mar 23?26, 2016). A new, innovation-based classification of Atlantic languages . ACAL 47. Berkeley. {{ cite conference }} : CS1 maint: date and year ( link )
  5. ^ Guldemann (2018) , p. 188.
  6. ^ Vossen, Rainer; Dimmendaal, Gerrit J., eds. (2020). The Oxford Handbook of African Languages . doi : 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199609895.001.0001 . ISBN   978-0199609895 .
  7. ^ Pozdniakov, K.; Segerer, G. "A genealogical classification of Atlantic languages". In Lupke, F. (ed.). The Oxford Guide to the Atlantic Languages of West Africa . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  8. ^ a b Pozdniakov & Segerer (2017) .
  9. ^ Wilson, Andre Auguier (2007). Guinea Languages of the Atlantic Group: Description and Internal Classification . ISBN   9780820498911 .
  10. ^ Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum" . Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.

Bibliography [ edit ]

  • Dalby, David (1965). "The Mel languages: a reclassification of southern 'West Atlantic' ". African Language Studies (6): 1?17.
  • Guldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Guldemann, Tom (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa . The World of Linguistics. Vol. 11. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 58?444. doi : 10.1515/9783110421668-002 . ISBN   978-3-11-042606-9 . S2CID   133888593 .
  • Holst, Jan Henrik (2008). Reconstructing the mutation system of Atlantic . Neuried. ISBN   978-3-89391-172-1 .
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin (2007). "Etudes atlantiques comparatives: questions de methodologie" (PDF) . Memoires de la Societe linguistique de Paris . 15 : 93?119. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-09-28.
  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin (2008). Ibriszimow, Dymitr (ed.). "Niveaux linguistiques et problemes de reconstruction dans les langues atlantiques". Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika (in French). 19 . ISBN   978-3-89645-094-4 . ISSN   0170-5946 .
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  • Pozdniakov, Konstantin; Segerer, Guillaume (2017). "A Genealogical classification of Atlantic languages (draft)". In Lupke, Friederike (ed.). The Oxford guide to the Atlantic languages of West Africa . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Segerer, Guillaume; Lionnet, Florian (2010-12-04). Isolates' in 'Atlantic' . Language Isolates in Africa workshop, Lyon. Archived from the original on 2012-03-31.
  • Sapir, J. David (1971). "West Atlantic: An inventory of the languages, their noun class systems and consonant alternations". In Berry, Jack; Sebeok, Thomas Albert (eds.). Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa . Current Trends in Linguistics. Vol. 7. pp. 45?112. doi : 10.1515/9783111562520 . ISBN   9783111191485 .
  • Williamson, Kay; Blench, Roger. "Niger-Congo". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.). African Languages: An Introduction . pp. 11?42. ISBN   9780521661782 . OCLC   42810789 .
  • Wilson, W. A. A. (1989). "Atlantic". In Bendor-Samuel, John; Hartell, Rhonda L. (eds.). The Niger-Congo Languages: A Classification and Description of Africa's Largest Language Family . University Press of America. ISBN   9780819173751 .

External links [ edit ]

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