Southeastern European Neolithic archaeological culture
The
Vin?a culture
(?iːnt?a), also known as
Turda? culture
,
Turda??Vin?a culture
or
Vin?a-Turda? culture
, is a
Neolithic
archaeological culture
of
Southeast Europe
, dated to the period 5400?4500 BC.
[1]
[2]
[3]
Named for its
type site
,
Vin?a-Belo Brdo
, a large
tell
settlement discovered by Serbian archaeologist
Miloje Vasi?
in 1908, it represents the material remains of a
prehistoric
society mainly distinguished by its settlement pattern and
ritual
behaviour.
Farming technology first introduced to the region during the
First Temperate Neolithic
was developed further by the Vin?a culture. It was noted for dark-burnished pottery, and fuelling a population boom and producing some of the largest settlements in prehistoric Europe. These settlements maintained a high degree of cultural uniformity through the long-distance exchange of ritual items, but were probably not politically unified. Various styles of
zoomorphic
and
anthropomorphic
figurines
are hallmarks of the culture, as are the
Vin?a symbols
, which some conjecture to be the earliest form of
proto-writing
. Although not conventionally considered part of the
Chalcolithic
or "Copper Age", the Vin?a culture provides the earliest known example of
copper
smelting
in the Old World.
[4]
Geography and demographics
[
edit
]
The Vin?a culture occupied a region of
Southeastern Europe
(i.e. the
Balkans
) corresponding mainly to modern-day
Serbia
and
Kosovo
, but also parts of Southernmost
Hungary
, Western-Central
Romania
(
Oltenia
,
Transylvania
), Western
Bulgaria
, Eastern
Croatia
, Eastern
Bosnia
, Northern
Montenegro
and
North Macedonia
.
[5]
[6]
[7]
John Chapman (1981) previously included
Greece
and excluded Hungary and Croatia (as new findings and conclusions were not known at the time).
[8]
This region had already been settled by farming societies of the
First Temperate Neolithic
(like
Star?evo culture
) and during the
Neolithic demographic transition
population sizes started to grow. However, during the Vin?a period happened changes in technology and style of pottery, and the sustained population growth led to an unprecedented level of settlement size and density along with the population of areas that were bypassed by earlier settlers.
[9]
Vin?a settlements were considerably larger than almost all other contemporary European culture (with the exception of
Cucuteni?Trypillia culture
),
[10]
in some instances surpassing the cities of the
Aegean
and early
Near Eastern Bronze Age
a millennium later.
[11]
Considering their size can be grouped into 1-1.9 ha, 4-4.9 ha and 20-29 ha.
[12]
One of the largest sites was
Vin?a-Belo Brdo
(a suburb of
Belgrade
, Serbia), it covered 29 hectares (72 acres) and had up to 2,500 people.
[11]
Early Vin?a settlement population density was 50?200 people per hectare, in later phases an average of 50?100 people per hectare was common.
[1]
The
Divostin
site was occupied twice between 4900 and 4650 B.C. and an estimate based on 17 houses suggests that given a lifespan per house of 56 years. 1028 houses were built on the site during that period with a final population size estimated to be between 868 and 2864.
[13]
Another large site was
Crkvine-Stubline
from 4850/4800 BC. it may have contained a maximum population of 4,000. The settlement of
Par?a
maybe had 1,575 people living there at the same time.
[14]
[15]
[13]
It is considered that alike the Neolithic-Chalcolithic Age "there is no evidence for any proto-urbanism nor specialised military, religious or administrative centres",
[16]
but their settlements did have defensive formations.
[17]
Origin
[
edit
]
The origins of the Vin?a culture are still debated and there exist two mainstream theories,
[18]
[19]
[20]
as stated by Marko Por?i? (2016), "currently there is no sufficient evidence to accept or to reject out any of the hypotheses proposed for the issue of Vin?a culture origins".
[21]
It is also debatable whether it can be conceptually considered as a "culture" or a "phenomenon".
[6]
[20]
The first hypothesis is that the Vin?a culture developed locally from the preceding Neolithic
Star?evo culture
?first proposed by
Colin Renfrew
(1969) and
Ruth Tringham
(1971)?and it became accepted by many scholars,
[19]
showing "strong links with the contemporaneous
Karanovo
(phases III to Kod?adermen-Gumelnita-Karanovo VI) in Bulgaria,
Precucuteni-Tripolye
A in Moldavia and Ukraine,
Dimini
in Greece, and the late manifestations of the
Star?evo culture
and early
Sopot culture
in eastern Croatia".
[19]
[20]
However, the evidence is not conclusive,
[20]
[22]
[23]
and according to recent research "the earliest Vin?a sites in the south seem to be as early as those in the north" and have lack of local continuity.
[19]
[20]
According to the second hypothesis?first proposed by
V. Gordon Childe
(1929) and Milutin Gara?anin (1982)?on the basis of
typological
similarities, paleodemography and archaeogenetics, the Vin?a culture and those of 'Dark Burnished Ware' developed by a second wave population movement from Anatolia to the Balkans after happened demographic-cultural decline and discontinuity between Early-Late Neolithic in the Central Balkans.
[20]
[19]
Recent studies suggest possibility of both local and migration origin, also related to the emergence of
Dude?ti
and
Boian culture
in Romania, or a combination of both origins.
[20]
[24]
[25]
[26]
Archaeogenetics
[
edit
]
The 2017 and 2018
archaeogenetic
studies on 15 samples show that all except one belonged to the paternal Y-DNA haplogroup
G-M201 (G2a2a; G2a2a1; 2x G2a2a1a; G2a2b2a1a-PF3346)
, while the remaining sample belonged to
haplogroup H-P96
. Their maternal mtDNA haplogroups belonged to H, H3h2, H26, HV, K1a1, K1a4, K2a, T2b, T2c1, and U2 respectively.
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
According to ADMIXTURE analysis they had approximately 90-97%
Early European Farmers
, 0-12%
Western Hunter-Gatherer
and 0-8%
Western Steppe Herders
-related ancestry,
[29]
and were closest "to the samples from Neolithic Anatolia and to those of Transdanubia
LBK
and Star?evo, and from the Early Neolithic period from Germany ... consistent with the presumed direction of Neolithic demic movement from Anatolia through the Balkans to central Europe".
[26]
A 2021 study found that Neolithic farmers, including those of the Vin?a culture, produced much less
cytokine
levels for inflammation than earlier hunter-gatherers, which evolutionary introduction to the European genomic heritage helps the immune system of modern Europeans.
[30]
Chronology
[
edit
]
There exist several divisions of the culture, according to J. Chapman (1981) it can be divided into two main
phases
divided into four sub-phases (A-D), closely linked with those of its type site Vin?a-Belo Brdo and dated between 5700 and 4200 BC.
[31]
[32]
According to the most recent
radiocarbon dating
based on 76 dates (1996) Vin?a-Belo Brdo spanned between 5200 and 4500 BC; on 155 dates (2009) it was dated between 5400/5300-4650/4600 BC;
[33]
and on 600 dates (2016) it was concluded that the culture existed between 5400/5300 and 4500 BC.
[34]
[35]
In the Vin?a C phase happened many significant changes to pottery style, settlement and pyrometallurgical activities and increase in ritual figurines among others because of which it is also called as "Vin?a C shock" and "Gradac Phase" (Vin?a B2-C1).
[36]
[37]
The phenomenon was particularly strong in the South-Moravian and Kosovian variation of the culture.
[38]
Vin?a culture
|
Vin?a-Belo Brdo
|
Years BC
|
Early Vin?a period
|
Vin?a A
|
5400/5300?5200
|
Vin?a B
|
5200?5000/4950
|
Vin?a C
|
5000/4950?4850/4800
|
Late Vin?a period
|
Vin?a D
|
4850/4800?4600/4500
|
Decline
[
edit
]
In its late Vin?a D phase the centre of the Vin?a network shifted from Vin?a-Belo Brdo to
Vr?ac
, and the long-distance exchange of
obsidian
and
Spondylus
artefacts from modern-day Hungary and the
Aegean
respectively became more important than that of Vin?a figurines. Eventually the network lost its cohesion altogether and fell into decline. It is likely that, after two millennia of
intensive farming
, economic stresses caused by decreasing soil fertility were partly responsible for this decline.
[39]
According to
Marija Gimbutas
, the Vin?a culture was part of
Old Europe
? a relatively homogeneous, peaceful and
matrifocal
culture that occupied Europe during the Neolithic. According to this hypothesis its period of decline was followed by an invasion of warlike, horse-riding
Proto-Indo-European
tribes from the
Pontic?Caspian steppe
.
[40]
However, this "
New Age
sentiment" viewpoint was prevalent until 1990s when started to emerge evidences of violent massacres and defensively-enclosed fortified settlements in Neolithic period.
[17]
Economy
[
edit
]
Subsistence
[
edit
]
Most people in Vin?a settlements would have been occupied with the provision of food. They practised a mixed subsistence economy where
agriculture
,
animal husbandry
and
hunting and foraging
all contributed to the diet of the growing Vin?a population. Compared to earlier cultures of the
First Temperate Neolithic
(FTN) these practices were intensified, with increasing specialisation on high-yield
cereal
crops and the
secondary products
of domesticated animals, consistent with the increased population density.
[41]
In the late Vin?a period (Vin?a D; c. 4850-4500 cal BC) appeared first
toggling harpoon
.
[42]
Vin?a agriculture introduced
common wheat
,
oat
and
flax
to temperate Europe, and made greater use of
barley
than the cultures of the FTN. These innovations increased crop yields and allowed the manufacture of clothes made from plant textiles as well as animal products (i.e. leather and wool). There is indirect evidence that Vin?a farmers made use of the cattle-driven
plough
, which would have had a major effect on the amount of human labour required for agriculture as well as opening up new area of land for farming. Many of the largest Vin?a sites occupy regions dominated by soil types that would have required ploughing.
[41]
Areas with less arable potential were exploited through
transhumant
pastoralism
, where groups from the lowland villages moved their livestock to nearby upland areas on a seasonal basis. Cattle were more important than sheep and goats in Vin?a herds and, in comparison to the cultures of the FTN, livestock was increasingly kept for milk, leather and as
draft animals
, rather than solely for meat. Seasonal movement to upland areas was also motivated by the exploitation of stone and mineral resources. Where these were especially rich permanent upland settlements were established, which would have relied more heavily on pastoralism for subsistence.
[41]
Although increasingly focused on domesticated plants and animals, the Vin?a subsistence economy still made use of wild food resources. The hunting of
deer
,
boar
and
aurochs
, fishing of
carp
and
catfish
, shell-collecting,
fowling
and foraging of wild cereals, forest fruits and nuts made up a significant part of the diet at some Vin?a sites. These, however, were in the minority; settlements were invariably located with agricultural rather than wild food potential in mind, and wild resources were usually underexploited unless the area was low in arable productivity.
[41]
Industry
[
edit
]
Generally speaking craft production within the Vin?a network was carried out at the household level; there is little evidence for individual
economic specialisation
. Nevertheless, some Vin?a artefacts were made with considerable levels of technical skill. A two-stage method was used to produce
pottery
with a polished, multi-coloured finish, known as 'Black-topped' and 'Rainbow Ware'. Sometimes powdered
cinnabar
and
limonite
were applied to the fired clay for decoration. The style of Vin?a clothing can be inferred from figurines depicted with open-necked
tunics
and decorated skirts. Cloth was woven from both flax and wool (with flax becoming more important in the later Vin?a period), and buttons made from shell or stone were also used.
[43]
The Vin?a site of
Plo?nik
has produced the earliest example of
copper
tools in the world. However, the people of the Vin?a network practised only an early and limited form of metallurgy.
[44]
Copper ores were mined on a large scale at sites like
Rudna Glava
, but only a fraction were smelted and cast into metal artefacts ? and these were ornaments and trinkets rather than functional tools, which continued to be made from
chipped stone
, bone and antler. It is likely that the primary use of mined ores was in their powdered form, in the production of pottery or as bodily decoration.
[43]
Gallery
[
edit
]
Major Vin?a sites
[
edit
]
Map of Serbia with markers showing the locations of major Vin?a archaeological sites.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
Suciu 2011
- ^
Peri? 2017
- ^
Roberts, Radivojevi? & Mari? 2021
- ^
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b
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- ^
Roberts, Radivojevi? & Mari? 2021
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- ^
Chapman 2000
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- ^
Por?i? 2020
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- ^
Rassmann & Furholt 2021
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- ^
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Gibbons, Ann (7 September 2021).
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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- ^
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Bibliography
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]
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"Enclosing the Neolithic World: A Vin?a Culture Enclosed and Fortified Settlement in the Balkans"
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:
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- Chapman, John (1981).
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.
- Chapman, John (2000).
Fragmentation in Archaeology: People, Places, and Broken Objects
. London: Routledge.
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- Cvekic, Ljilja (12 November 2007).
"Prehistoric women had passion for fashion"
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- Gimbutas, Marija A.
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- Jakucs, Janos (2016).
"Between the Vin?a and Linearbandkeramik Worlds: The Diversity of Practices and Identities in the 54th?53rd Centuries cal BC in Southwest Hungary and Beyond"
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0016-8874
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"A Vin?a potscape: formal chronological models for the use and development of Vin?a ceramics in south-east Europe"
.
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.
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.
Further reading
[
edit
]
- Amicone, Silvia (2020).
"Beneath the surface: Exploring variability in pottery paste recipes within Vin?a culture"
.
Quaternary International
. 560?561.
Elsevier
: 86?101.
Bibcode
:
2020QuInt.560...86A
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.quaint.2020.04.017
.
S2CID
218993018
.
- Boti?, Katarina (2020). "Middle Neolithic trasformation: Star?evo?LBK?Vin?a meeting point and the emergence of Ra?i?te style in Drava river valley".
Quaternary International
. 560?561.
Elsevier
: 197?207.
Bibcode
:
2020QuInt.560..197B
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.quaint.2020.03.032
.
S2CID
216336481
.
- Chapman, John (2020).
"The Vin?a group - (Almost) 40 years on John Chapman (independent scholar)"
(PDF)
.
Quaternary International
. 560?561.
Elsevier
: 5?19.
Bibcode
:
2020QuInt.560....5C
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.014
.
S2CID
225663493
.
- Diaconescu, Drago? (2020). "The early Vin?a culture in Transylvania: Considerations regarding its chronological position using correspondence analysis".
Quaternary International
. 560?561.
Elsevier
: 65?77.
Bibcode
:
2020QuInt.560...65D
.
doi
:
10.1016/j.quaint.2020.05.019
.
S2CID
225654476
.
- Hofmann, Robert (2020).
"Orientation of Neolithic dwellings in Central and Southeast Europe: Common denominator between the Vin?a and Linearbandkeramik worlds"
.
Quaternary International
. 560?561.
Elsevier
: 142?153.
Bibcode
:
2020QuInt.560..142H
.
doi
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