Foundational text of the Vaisheshika school of Hindu philosophy
Vai?e?ika S?tra
(
Sanskrit
: ??????? ?????), also called
Kanada sutra
, is an ancient
Sanskrit
text at the foundation of the
Vaisheshika
school of
Hindu philosophy
.
[1]
[2]
[3]
The
sutra
was authored by the Hindu sage
Kanada
, also known as Kashyapa.
[4]
According to some scholars, he flourished before the advent of
Buddhism
because the
Vai?e?ika S?tra
makes no mention of Buddhism or Buddhist doctrines;
[6]
however, the details of Kanada's life are uncertain,
[7]
and the
Vai?e?ika S?tra
was likely compiled sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE,
and finalized in the currently existing version before the start of the common era.
A number of scholars have commented on it since the beginning of common era; the earliest commentary known is the
Padartha Dharma Sangraha
of
Prashastapada
.
[10]
Another important secondary work on
Vai?e?ika S?tra
is Maticandra's
Dasha padartha sastra
which exists both in Sanskrit and its Chinese translation in 648 CE by Yuanzhuang.
The
Vai?e?ika S?tra
is written in aphoristic sutras style,
and presents its theories on the creation and existence of the universe using naturalistic
atomism
,
[14]
applying logic and realism, and is one of the earliest known systematic realist
ontology
in human history.
The text discusses motions of different kind and laws that govern it, the meaning of
dharma
, a theory of
epistemology
, the basis of
Atman
(self, soul), and the nature of
yoga
and
moksha
.
[17]
[18]
The explicit mention of motion as the cause of all phenomena in the world and several propositions about it make it one of the earliest texts on physics.
Etymology
[
edit
]
The name
Vai?e?ika S?tra
(Sanskrit: ??????? ?????) is derived from
vi?e?a
, ?????, which means "particularity", that is to be contrasted from "universality".
[19]
The classes particularity and universality belong to different categories of experience.
Manuscripts
[
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]
Till the 1950s, only one manuscript of
Vaiseshika sutra
was known and this manuscript was part of a
bhasya
by the 15th century Sankaramisra.
Scholars had doubted its authenticity, given the inconsistencies in this manuscript and the quotes in other Hindu, Jaina and Buddhist literature claiming to be from the
Vaisheshika Sutra
. In the 1950s and early 1960s, new manuscripts of
Vai?e?ika S?tra
were discovered in distant parts of India, which were later identified as this Sutra.
[21]
These newer manuscripts are quite different, more consistent with the historical literature, and suggests that, like other major texts and scriptures of Hinduism,
Vai?e?ika S?tra
too suffered interpolations, errors in transmission and distortion over time. A critical edition of the
Vai?e?ika S?tra
is now available.
Date
[
edit
]
The
Vaisheshika Sutras
mention the doctrines of competing schools of Indian philosophy such as Samkhya and Mimamsa,
but make no mention of Buddhism, which has led scholars in more recent publications to posit estimates of 6th to 2nd century BCE.
[4]
The
critical edition
studies of
Vaisheshika Sutras
manuscripts discovered after 1950, suggest that the text attributed to Kanada existed in a finalized form sometime between 200 BCE and the start of the common era, with the possibility that its key doctrines are much older.
Multiple Hindu texts dated to the 1st and 2nd century CE, such as the
Mahavibhasa
and
Jnanaprasthana
from the
Kushan Empire
, quote and comment on Kanada's doctrines.
Although the
Vaisheshika Sutras
makes no mention of the doctrines of
Jainism
and
Buddhism
, their ancient texts mention
Vaisheshika Sutras
doctrines and use its terminology,
[23]
particularly Buddhism's Sarvastivada tradition, as well as the works of
Nagarjuna
.
[24]
Physics and philosophy
[
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]
Physics is central to Ka??da's assertion that all that is knowable is based on motion. His ascribing centrality to physics in the understanding of the universe also follows from his invariance principles. For example, he says that the atom must be spherical since it should be the same in all dimensions.
[25]
He asserts that all substances are composed of atoms, two of which have mass and two are massless.
The opening sutras
Now an explanation of
dharma
,
the means to prosperity and salvation is dharma.
?
Vaisheshika Sutra
, Transl: Klaus Klostermaier
[26]
The philosophy in
Vaiseshika sutra
is atomistic pluralism, states Jayatilleke.
[27]
Its ideas are known for its contributions to "inductive inference", and often coupled with the "deductive logic" of the sister school of Hinduism called the
Nyaya
.
[28]
James Thrower and others call Vai?e?ika philosophy to be naturalism.
[29]
[30]
The text states:
[31]
- There are nine constituents of realities: four classes of
atoms
(earth, water, fire and air), space (
akasha
), time (
k?la
), direction (disha), infinity of souls (
Atman
), mind (
manas
).
[32]
- Every object of creation is made of atoms (parmanu) which in turn connect with each other to form molecules (anu). Atoms are eternal, and their combinations constitute the empirical material world.
- Individual souls are eternal and pervade material body for a time.
- There are six categories (
pad?rtha
) of experience ? substance, quality, activity, generality, particularity, and inherence.
Several traits of substances (
dravya
) are given as color, taste, smell, touch, number, size, the separate, coupling and uncoupling, priority and posterity, comprehension, pleasure and pain, attraction and revulsion, and wishes.
[33]
Like many foundational texts of classical schools of Hindu philosophy, God is not mentioned in the sutra, and the text is non-theistic.
[34]
[35]
Content
[
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]
The critical edition of the
Vaisheshika Sutras
are divided into ten chapters, each subdivided into two sections called ?hnikas:
[37]
[note 1]
Chapter 1
[
edit
]
Kanada opens his Sutra with definitions of
Dharma
, the importance of the
Vedas
and his goals. The text, states Matilal, then defines and describes three categories and their causal aspects: substance, quality and action.
He explains their differences, similarities and relationships between these three. The second part of first chapter defines and explains a universal, a particular (
vi?e?a
,
) and their hierarchical relationship. Kanada states that it is from combination of particulars that some universals emerge.
Chapter 2
[
edit
]
The second chapter of the
Vaisheshika Sutras
presents five substances (earth, air, water, fire, space) each with a distinct quality. Kanada argues that all except "air and space" is verifiable by perception, while existence of invisible air is established by inference (air blows, and that there must be a substance that affects the touch sensation to the skin; space, he argues, is inferred from one's ability to move from one point to another unhindered - a point he revises in later part of the text by asserting that sound is perceived and proves space).
Chapter 3
[
edit
]
Kanada states his premises about the
atman
(self, soul) and its validity.
Chapter 4
[
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]
Discussion the body and its adjuncts
Chapter 5
[
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]
In the fifth chapter action connected with the body and action connected with the mind are investigated. The text defines and discusses
Yoga
and
Moksha
, asserting that self-knowledge (
atma-saksatkara
) is the means to spiritual liberation.
[42]
In this chapter, Kanada mentions various natural phenomena such as the falling of objects to ground, rising of fire upwards, the growth of grass upwards, the nature of rainfall and thunderstorms, the flow of liquids, the movement towards a magnet among many others; he then attempts to integrate his observations with his theories, and classifies phenomenon into two: those caused by volition, and those caused by subject-object conjunctions.
[43]
[44]
Chapter 6
[
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]
In the sixth chapter pu?ya (virtue) and p?pa (sin) are examined both as moral precepts and as discussed in the Vedas and Upanishads.
Chapter 7
[
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]
In the seventh chapter discusses qualities such as color and taste as a function of heat, time, object and subject. Kanada dedicates a significant number of Sutras to his theory and importance of measurement.
Chapter 8
[
edit
]
In the eighth chapter, Kanada dwells on nature of cognition and reality, arguing that cognition is a function of the object (substance) and subject. Some sutras are unclear, such as one on
Artha
, which Kanada states is applicable only to "substance, quality and action" per his chapter one.
Chapter 9
[
edit
]
Kanada discusses
epistemology
, particularly the nature of perception, inference and human reasoning process.
Chapter 10
[
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]
The final chapter focuses on the soul, its attributes and its threefold causes. Kanada asserts that human happiness and suffering is linked to ignorance, confusion and knowledge of the soul. He develops his theories of efficient cause, karma, body, mind, cognition and memory to present his thesis. He mentions meditation as a means of soul knowledge.
[46]
[47]
Notes
[
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]
- ^
The later texts of the Vaisesika school expanded and revised some of these ideas, categories and theories, as did scholars of Jainism, Buddhism and other Hinduism schools.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006).
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
. Infobase. pp. 317?318.
ISBN
978-0-8160-7564-5
.
- ^
Karl H. Potter (1977).
Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The Tradition of Ny?ya-Vai?e?ika Up to Ga?ge?a
. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 211?212.
ISBN
978-81-208-0309-1
.
- ^
Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,
ISBN
978-0231149877
, pages 2?5
- ^
a
b
Bart Labuschagne & Timo Slootweg 2012
, p. 60, Quote: "Kanada, a Hindu sage who lived either around the 6th or 2nd century BCE, and who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika..
- ^
Lal, Mohan. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Sasay to Zorgot, Volume 5. P. 3968.
ISBN
9993154229
.
- ^
Emmie te Nijenhuis
(1977).
Musicological literature
. Harrassowitz. pp. 53?54.
ISBN
978-3-447-01831-9
.
- ^
Chandradhar Sharma (2000).
A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy
. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 175.
ISBN
978-81-208-0365-7
.
- ^
Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India
J Ganeri, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2014);
Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy
, A Chatterjee, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2012)
- ^
Translation of critical edition of
Vai?e?ika S?tra
: John Wells (2009),
The Vaisheshika Darshana
, Darshana Press; Discussion:
Shyam Ranganathan (2007).
Ethics and the History of Indian Philosophy
. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 344?348.
ISBN
978-81-208-3193-3
.
- ^
On yoga and moksha in Vaisesika Sutras:
Johannes Bronkhorst (1993).
The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India
. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 64.
ISBN
978-81-208-1114-0
.
- ^
Wilhelm Halbfass (1992).
On Being and What There Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology
. State University of New York Press. p. 272.
ISBN
978-0-7914-1178-0
.
- ^
Wilhelm Halbfass (1992).
On Being and What There Is: Classical Vaisesika and the History of Indian Ontology
. State University of New York Press. pp. 79?80.
ISBN
978-0-7914-1178-0
.
- ^
Johannes Bronkhorst (2006). Patrick Olivelle (ed.).
Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE
. Oxford University Press. pp. 283?294.
ISBN
978-0-19-977507-1
.
- ^
David Seyfort Ruegg (1981).
The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India
. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 10, 50?51.
ISBN
978-3-447-02204-0
.
- ^
Kak, S. Ka??da, Great Physicist and Sage of Antiquity
- ^
Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010).
Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition
. State University of New York Press. p. 334.
ISBN
978-0-7914-8011-3
.
- ^
K N Jayatilleke (2013).
Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge
. Routledge. p. 266.
ISBN
978-1-134-54287-1
.
- ^
Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010).
Survey of Hinduism, A: Third Edition
. State University of New York Press. pp. 333?334.
ISBN
978-0-7914-8011-3
.
- ^
James Thrower (1980).
The Alternative Tradition: Religion and the Rejection of Religion in the Ancient World
. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 76?90.
ISBN
978-90-279-7997-1
.
- ^
Naturalism in Classical Indian Philosophy
, Amita Chatterjee (2012), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ^
The
Vaisheshika sutras
of Kanada
, 2nd Edition, Translator: Nandalal Sinha (1923); Editor: BD Basu; Note: this is the translation of non-critical edition of the manuscript
- ^
O'Flaherty, p. 3.
- ^
Vitsaxis, Vassilis. Thought and Faith: Comparative Philosophical and Religious Concepts in Ancient Greece, India, and Christianity. Somerset Hall Pr 2009-10-01 (October 2009). P. 299.
ISBN
1935244035
.
- ^
Surendranath Dasgupta (1992).
A History of Indian Philosophy
. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 281?285.
ISBN
978-81-208-0412-8
.
- ^
Roy W. Perrett (2013).
Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy
. Routledge. pp. xiii?xiv.
ISBN
978-1-135-70329-5
.
- ^
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press,
ISBN
978-0791430675
, page 238
- ^
M. Hiriyanna (1995).
The Essentials of Indian Philosophy
. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 85.
ISBN
978-81-208-1330-4
.
- ^
The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada
, page 3, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)
- ^
The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada
, pagez 152-166, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)
- ^
John Wells (2009),
The Vaisheshika Darshana
, Darshana Press, Chapter 5 verses (main and appendix)
- ^
The Vaisesika Sutras of Kanada
, pagez 296-304, Translated by Nandalal Sinha (note this translation is of the old disputed manuscript, not critical edition)
- ^
John Wells (2009),
The Vaisheshika Darshana
, Darshana Press, pages 32-34
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