Public university in Berlin, Germany
The
Humboldt University of Berlin
(German:
Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin
, abbreviated
HU Berlin
) is a
public
research university
in the central borough of
Mitte
in
Berlin
, Germany.
The university was established by
Frederick William III
on the initiative of
Wilhelm von Humboldt
,
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
and
Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher
as the
University of Berlin
(
Universitat zu Berlin
) in 1809, and opened in 1810,
[7]
making it the oldest of Berlin's four universities.
[
contradictory
]
From 1828 until its closure in 1945, it was named
Friedrich Wilhelm University
(German:
Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitat
).
[8]
[9]
During the
Cold War
, the university found itself in
East Berlin
and was
de facto
split in two when the
Free University of Berlin
opened in
West Berlin
. The university received its current name in honour of
Alexander
and
Wilhelm von Humboldt
in 1949.
[10]
The university is divided into nine faculties including its
medical school
shared with the Freie Universitat Berlin. The university has a student enrollment of around 32,000 students, and offers degree programs in some 189 disciplines from undergraduate to post-doctorate level.
[11]
Its main campus is located on the
Unter den Linden
boulevard in central Berlin. The university is known worldwide for pioneering the
Humboldtian model of higher education
, which has strongly influenced other European and Western universities.
[12]
It was generally regarded as the world's preeminent university for the
natural sciences
during the 19th and early 20th century, as the university is linked to major breakthroughs in physics and other sciences by its professors, such as
Albert Einstein
.
[13]
Past and present faculty and notable alumni include 57 Nobel Prize laureates
[5]
(the most of any German university), as well as scholars and academics including
Albert Einstein
,
Hermann von Helmholtz
,
Emil du Bois-Reymond
,
Robert Koch
,
Theodor Mommsen
,
Karl Marx
,
Friedrich Engels
,
Otto von Bismarck
,
W. E. B. Du Bois
,
Arthur Schopenhauer
,
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
,
Walter Benjamin
,
Max Weber
,
Georg Simmel
,
Karl Liebknecht
,
Ernst Cassirer
,
Heinrich Heine
,
Eduard Fraenkel
,
Max Planck
,
Wernher von Braun
and the
Brothers Grimm
.
History
[
edit
]
Main building
[
edit
]
The main building of Humboldt-Universitat is the Prinz-Heinrich-Palais (English:
Prince Henry's Palace
) on
Unter den Linden
boulevard in the
historic centre
of
Berlin
. It was erected from 1748 to 1753 for
Prince Henry of Prussia
, the brother of
Frederick the Great
, according to plans by
Johann Boumann
in
Baroque style
. In 1809, the former Royal Prussian residence was converted into a university building. Damaged during the
Allied bombing in World War II
, it was rebuilt from 1949 to 1962.
[14]
In 1967, eight statues from the destroyed
Potsdam City Palace
were placed on the side wings of the university building. Currently there is discussion about returning the statues to the Potsdam City Palace, which was rebuilt as the
Landtag of Brandenburg
in 2013.
[15]
Early history
[
edit
]
The University of Berlin was established on 16 August 1809, on the initiative of the liberal Prussian educational politician
Wilhelm von Humboldt
by
King Friedrich Wilhelm III
, similar to
University of Bonn
, during the period of the
Prussian Reform Movement
. The university was located in a palace constructed from 1748 to 1766
[16]
for the late
Prince Henry
, the younger brother of
Frederick the Great
.
[17]
After his widow and her ninety-member staff moved out, the first unofficial lectures were given in the building in the winter of 1809.
[17]
Humboldt faced great resistance to his ideas as he set up the university. He submitted his resignation to the King in April 1810, and was not present when the school opened that fall.
[1]
The first students were admitted on 6 October 1810, and the first semester started on 10 October 1810, with 256 students and 52 lecturers
[10]
in faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy under rector Theodor Schmalz. The university celebrates 15 October 1810 as the date of its opening.
[1]
In 1810, at the time of the opening, the university established the first
academic chair
in the field of history in the world.
[18]
From 1828 to 1945, the school was named the Friedrich Wilhelm University, in honor of its founder.
Ludwig Feuerbach
, then one of the students, made a comment on the university in 1826: "There is no question here of drinking, duelling and pleasant communal outings; in no other university can you find such a passion for work, such an interest for things that are not petty student intrigues, such an inclination for the sciences, such calm and such silence. Compared to this temple of work, the other universities appear like public houses."
[19]
The university has been home to many of Germany's greatest thinkers of the past two centuries, among them the subjective idealist philosopher
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
, the theologian
Friedrich Schleiermacher
, the absolute idealist philosopher
G.W.F. Hegel
, the Romantic legal theorist
Friedrich Carl von Savigny
, the anti-optimist philosopher
Arthur Schopenhauer
, the objective idealist philosopher
Friedrich Schelling
, cultural critic
Walter Benjamin
, and famous physicists
Albert Einstein
and
Max Planck
.
The founders of Marxist theory
Karl Marx
and
Friedrich Engels
attended the university, as did poet
Heinrich Heine
, novelist
Alfred Doblin
, founder of
structuralism
Ferdinand de Saussure
, German unifier
Otto von Bismarck
,
Communist Party of Germany
founder
Karl Liebknecht
, African American
Pan Africanist
W. E. B. Du Bois
and European unifier
Robert Schuman
, as well as the influential surgeon
Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach
in the early half of the 1800s.
The structure of German research-intensive universities served as a model for institutions like
Johns Hopkins University
. Further, it has been claimed that "the 'Humboldtian' university became a model for the rest of Europe [...] with its central principle being the union of teaching and research in the work of the individual scholar or scientist."
[20]
Enlargement
[
edit
]
In addition to the strong anchoring of traditional subjects, such as science, law, philosophy, history, theology and medicine, the university developed to encompass numerous new scientific disciplines.
Alexander von Humboldt
, brother of the founder William, promoted the new learning. The construction of modern research facilities in the second half of the 19th century aided the teaching of the natural sciences. Famous researchers, such as the chemist
August Wilhelm Hofmann
, the physicist
Hermann von Helmholtz
, the mathematicians
Ernst Eduard Kummer
,
Leopold Kronecker
,
Karl Weierstrass
, the physicians
Johannes Peter Muller
,
Emil du Bois-Reymond
,
Albrecht von Graefe
,
Rudolf Virchow
, and
Robert Koch
, contributed to Berlin University's scientific fame.
During this period of enlargement, the university gradually expanded to incorporate other previously separate colleges in Berlin. An example would be the
Charite
, the Pepiniere and the Collegium Medico-chirurgicum. In 1710, King
Friedrich I
had built a
quarantine
house for
Plague
at the city gates, which in 1727 was rechristened by the "soldier king"
Friedrich Wilhelm:
"Es soll das Haus die Charite heißen" (It will be called Charite [French for
charity
]). By 1829 the site became the Friedrich Wilhelm University's medical campus and remained so until 1927 when the more modern University Hospital was constructed.
The university started a
natural history
collection in 1810, which by 1889, required a separate building and became the
Museum fur Naturkunde
. The preexisting Tierarznei School, founded in 1790 and absorbed by the university, in 1934 formed the basis of the Veterinary Medicine Facility (Grundstock der Veterinarmedizinischen Fakultat). Also the
Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule Berlin
(Agricultural University of Berlin), founded in 1881 was affiliated with the Agricultural Faculties of the university.
In August 1870, in a speech delivered on the eve of war with France,
Emil du Bois-Reymond
proclaimed that "the University of Berlin, quartered opposite the King's palace, is, by the deed of our foundation, the intellectual bodyguard of the
House of Hohenzollern
(das geistige Leibregiment des Hauses Hohenzollern)."
[22]
Third Reich
[
edit
]
After 1933, like all German universities, Friedrich Wilhelm University was affected by the
Nazi regime
. The rector during this period was
Eugen Fischer
. It was from the university's library that some 20,000 books by "
degenerates
" and
opponents of the regime
were
taken to be burned
on 10 May of that year in the Opernplatz (now the
Bebelplatz
) for a demonstration protected by the
SA
that also featured a speech by
Joseph Goebbels
. A monument to this can now be found in the center of the square, consisting of a glass panel opening onto an underground white room with empty shelf space for 20,000 volumes and a plaque, bearing an epigraph from an 1820 work by
Heinrich Heine
: "Das war ein Vorspiel nur, dort wo man Bucher verbrennt, verbrennt man am Ende auch Menschen" ("This was but a prelude; where they burn books, they ultimately burn people").
The
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service
(German "Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufsbeamtentums") resulted in 250 Jewish professors and employees being fired from Friedrich Wilhelm University during 1933?1934 and numerous doctorates being withdrawn. Students and scholars and political opponents of Nazis were ejected from the university and often deported. During this time nearly one third of all of the staff were fired by the Nazis.
Cold War
[
edit
]
During the
Cold War
, the university was located in
East Berlin
. It reopened in 1946 as the University of Berlin, but faced repression from the
Soviet Military Administration in Germany
, including the persecution of liberal and social democrat students. Almost immediately, the Soviet occupiers started persecuting non-communists and suppressing academic freedom at the university, requiring lectures to be submitted for approval by
Socialist Unity Party
officials, and piped Soviet propaganda into the cafeteria. This led to strong protests within the student body and faculty.
NKVD
secret police
arrested a number of students in March 1947 as a response. The Soviet Military Tribunal in
Berlin-Lichtenberg
ruled the students were involved in the formation of a "resistance movement at the University of Berlin", as well as espionage, and were sentenced to 25 years of forced labor. From 1945 to 1948, 18 other students and teachers were arrested or abducted, many gone for weeks, and some taken to the
Soviet Union
and executed. Many of the students targeted by Soviet persecution were active in the liberal or social democratic resistance against the Soviet-imposed communist dictatorship; the German communist party had regarded the social democrats as their main enemies since the early days of the Weimar Republic.
[23]
During the
Berlin Blockade
, the
Freie Universitat Berlin
was established as a de facto western successor in
West Berlin
in 1948, with support from the United States, and retaining traditions and faculty members of the old Friedrich Wilhelm University. The name of the Free University refers to West Berlin's perceived status as part of the Western "
free world
", in contrast to the "unfree" Communist world in general and the "unfree" communist-controlled university in
East Berlin
in particular.
[23]
Since the historical name, Friedrich Wilhelm University, had monarchic origins, the school was officially renamed in 1949. Although the Soviet occupational authorities preferred to name the school after a communist leader, university leaders were able to name it the Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin, after the two Humboldt brothers, a name that was also uncontroversial in the west and capitalized on the fame of the Humboldt name, which is associated with the
Humboldtian model of higher education
.
[24]
Modern Germany
[
edit
]
The main building of Humboldt- Universitat, located in Berlin's "
Mitte
" district (
Unter den Linden
boulevard)
After the
German reunification
, the university was radically restructured under the Structure and Appointment Commissions, which were presided by West German professors.
[25]
[26]
For departments on social sciences and humanities, the faculty was subjected to a "liquidation" process, in which contracts of employees were terminated and positions were made open to new academics, mainly West Germans. Older professors were offered early retirement.
[26]
[27]
The East German higher education system included a much larger number of permanent assistant professors, lecturers and other middle level academic positions. After reunification, these positions were abolished or converted to temporary posts for consistency with the West German system.
[28]
As a result, only 10% of the mid-level academics in Humboldt-Universitat still had a position in 1998.
[26]
Through the transformations, the university's research and exchange links with Eastern European institutions were maintained and stabilized.
[25]
Today, Humboldt University is a state university with a large number of students (36,986 in 2014, among them more than 4,662 foreign students) after the model of West German universities, and like its counterpart the
Freie Universitat Berlin
.
The university consists of three different campuses, namely Campus Mitte, Campus Nord and Campus Adlershof. Its main building is located in the centre of Berlin at the boulevard
Unter den Linden
and is the heart of Campus Mitte. The building was erected on order by King
Frederick II
for his younger brother
Prince Henry of Prussia
. All the institutes of humanities are located around the main building together with the Department of Law and the Department of Business and Economics. Campus Nord is located north of the main building close to
Berlin Hauptbahnhof
and is the home of the life science departments including the university medical center
Charite
. The natural sciences, together with computer science and mathematics, are located at Campus Adlershof in the south-east of Berlin. Furthermore, the university continues its tradition of a book sale at the university gates facing Bebelplatz.
Organization
[
edit
]
The aforementioned nine faculties into which the university is divided:
[29]
- Faculty of Law
- Faculty of Mathematics and
Natural Sciences
(
Geography
,
Computer Science
, Mathematics,
Chemistry
,
Physics
)
- Faculty of
Life Sciences
(Agriculture and Horticulture,
Biology
,
Psychology
)
- Charite
? Berlin University of Medicine (jointly with
Free University of Berlin
)
- Faculty of Philosophy I (Philosophy, History, European
Ethnology
, Department of Library and
Information Science
)
- Faculty of Philosophy II (Literature,
Linguistics
,
Scandinavian Studies
,
Romance
literatures, English and
American Studies
,
Slavic Studies
,
Classical Philology
)
- Faculty of
Humanities
and
Social Sciences
(Social Sciences,
Cultural Studies
/Arts, Asian/African Studies (includes
Archeology
),
Sport science
,
Rehabilitation
Studies, Education,
Quality Management
in Education)
- Faculty of Theology
- Faculty of Economics and
Business Administration
Furthermore, there are two independent institutes (
Zentralinstitute
) that are part of the university:
Student representation
[
edit
]
Each year, students elect the
Studierendenparlament
, which serves as the body of
student representatives under German law
.
[30]
Summary of
Studierendenparlament
election results, 2022
[31]
[32]
Lists
|
Votes
|
%
|
±
|
Seats
|
±
|
|
Juso-Hochschulgruppe
|
252
|
21.5
|
7.1
|
13
|
+4
|
|
OLKS ? OffeneListeKritischerStudierender
|
180
|
15.4
|
5.8
|
9
|
+3
|
|
Linke Liste an der HU ? LiLi
|
156
|
13.3
|
?0.9
|
8
|
0
|
|
Association of Christian Democratic Students
(
Ring Christlich-Demokratischer Studenten
) ? Demokratisch. Praktisch. Gut.
|
151
|
12.9
|
6.7
|
8
|
+4
|
|
Grunboldt
|
115
|
9.8
|
3.4
|
6
|
+2
|
|
Queer-feministische LGBT*I*Q*-Liste
|
114
|
9.7
|
3.8
|
6
|
+3
|
|
Die Linke.SDS HU Berlin
|
88
|
7.5
|
4.8
|
4
|
+2
|
|
IYSSE
|
63
|
5.4
|
2.7
|
3
|
+1
|
|
Joao & the autonome alkis.Die LISTE
|
53
|
4.5
|
2.1
|
3
|
+2
|
Total
|
1172
|
100%
|
60
|
Library
[
edit
]
The former Royal Library, now seat of the Faculty of Law
When the Royal Library proved insufficient, a new library was founded in 1831, first located in several temporary sites. In 1871?1874 a library building was constructed, following the design of architect Paul Emanuel Spieker. In 1910 the collection was relocated to the building of the
Berlin State Library
.
During the
Weimar Period
the library contained 831,934 volumes (1930) and was thus one of the leading university libraries in Germany at that time.
During the
Nazi book burnings
in 1933, no volumes from the university library were destroyed. The loss through
World War II
was comparatively small. In 2003, natural science-related books were outhoused to the newly founded library at the
Adlershof
campus, which is dedicated solely to the natural sciences.
Since the premises of the State Library had to be cleared in 2005, a new library building was erected close to the main building in the center of Berlin. The "Jacob und Wilhelm Grimm-Zentrum" (Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm Centre, Grimm Zentrum, or GZ as referred to by students) opened in 2009.
In total, the university library contains about 6.5 million volumes and 9,000 held magazines and journals, and is one of the biggest university libraries in Germany.
The books of the
Institut fur Sexualwissenschaft
were destroyed during the Nazi book burnings, and the institute destroyed. Under the terms of the Magnus Hirschfeld Foundation, the government had agreed to continue the work of the institute at the university after its founder's death. However, these terms were ignored. In 2001, the university acquired the Archive for Sexology from the Robert Koch Institute, which was founded with a large private library donated by
Erwin J. Haeberle
. This has now been housed at the new Magnus Hirschfeld Center.
[33]
Academics
[
edit
]
Rankings
[
edit
]
According to the 2024
QS World University Rankings
, the university ranked 120th globally and 7th at the national level.
[34]
Additionally, in the
Times Higher Education World University Rankings
for 2024, it was placed at 87th worldwide and 4th within the country.
[35]
Because of an unresolved dispute over the counting of
Nobel
laureates before the Second World War ? both Humboldt University and the
Free University of Berlin
claim to be the rightful successor of the Friedrich Wilhelm University ? both do not appear in the
Academic Ranking of World Universities
(ARWU) anymore since 2008.
[36]
In the 2023 QS Subject Ranking, Humboldt University ranks first in Germany in the arts and humanities and the social sciences.
[37]
In the 2024 THE Subject Ranking, Humboldt University ranks second in Germany in the arts and humanities, law, psychology, and social sciences.
[38]
In the 2023 ARWU Subject Ranking, Humboldt University ranks first in Germany in geography.
[39]
QS
World University Rankings by Subject 2023
[37]
Subject
|
Global
|
National
|
Arts & Humanities
|
20
|
1
|
Linguistics
|
34
|
1
|
Theology, Divinity and Religious Studies
|
30
|
6
|
Archaeology
|
51?100
|
6?8
|
Classics and Ancient History
|
11
|
3
|
English Language and Literature
|
44
|
2
|
History
|
35
|
3
|
Modern Languages
|
32
|
2
|
Philosophy
|
13
|
2
|
Engineering and Technology
|
234
|
8
|
Computer Science and Information Systems
|
151?200
|
7?8
|
Life Sciences & Medicine
|
N/A
|
N/A
|
Agriculture and Forestry
|
101?150
|
5?9
|
Biological Sciences
|
126
|
9
|
Psychology
|
55
|
1
|
Natural Sciences
|
69
|
5
|
Chemistry
|
145
|
12
|
Environmental Sciences
|
66
|
1
|
Geography
|
12
|
1
|
Mathematics
|
80
|
4
|
Physics and Astronomy
|
107
|
8
|
Social Sciences & Management
|
82
|
1
|
Accounting and Finance
|
101?150
|
2?4
|
Anthropology
|
30
|
1
|
Business and Management Studies
|
201?250
|
5?8
|
Communication and Media Studies
|
101?150
|
3?7
|
Economics and Econometrics
|
78
|
4
|
Education and Training
|
89
|
1
|
Law and Legal Studies
|
39
|
1
|
Library and Information Management
|
49
|
1
|
Politics
|
51?100
|
2?4
|
Sociology
|
31
|
2
|
Sports?Related Subjects
|
101?140
|
1?2
|
Statistics and Operational Research
|
51?100
|
2?4
|
THE
World University Rankings by Subject 2024
[38]
Subject
|
Global
|
National
|
Arts & humanities
|
19
|
2
|
Computer science
|
251?300
|
18?23
|
Education
|
66
|
4
|
Law
|
31
|
2
|
Life sciences
|
83
|
8
|
Physical sciences
|
=74
|
6
|
Psychology
|
=39
|
2
|
Social sciences
|
=42
|
2
|
|
ARWU
Global Ranking of Academic Subjects 2023
[39]
Subject
|
Global
|
National
|
Natural Sciences
|
Mathematics
|
51?75
|
2?3
|
Physics
|
151?200
|
10?11
|
Chemistry
|
201?300
|
13?21
|
Earth Sciences
|
201?300
|
15?20
|
Geography
|
76?100
|
1
|
Ecology
|
151?200
|
13?16
|
Atmospheric Science
|
51?75
|
2
|
Engineering
|
Electrical & Electronic Engineering
|
301?400
|
9?11
|
Biomedical Engineering
|
101?150
|
2?5
|
Computer Science & Engineering
|
401?500
|
11?16
|
Materials Science & Engineering
|
201?300
|
8?13
|
Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
|
301?400
|
13?23
|
Environmental Science & Engineering
|
151?200
|
4?6
|
Water Resources
|
101?150
|
4?7
|
Biotechnology
|
101?150
|
2?7
|
Remote Sensing
|
24
|
2
|
Life Sciences
|
Biological Sciences
|
47
|
2
|
Human Biological Sciences
|
36
|
2
|
Agricultural Sciences
|
151?200
|
5?8
|
Veterinary Sciences
|
201?300
|
7?10
|
Medical Sciences
|
Clinical Medicine
|
47
|
2
|
Public Health
|
44
|
2
|
Dentistry & Oral Sciences
|
38
|
2
|
Nursing
|
101?150
|
1?2
|
Medical Technology
|
47
|
7
|
Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences
|
45
|
4
|
Social Sciences
|
Economics
|
151?200
|
5?8
|
Statistics
|
101?150
|
2?6
|
Law
|
151?200
|
1?2
|
Political Sciences
|
101?150
|
5?8
|
Sociology
|
51?75
|
3
|
Education
|
301?400
|
6?18
|
Psychology
|
51?75
|
1?4
|
Management
|
401?500
|
14?21
|
Public Administration
|
151?200
|
7?11
|
|
Measured by the number of top managers in the German economy, Humboldt-Universitat ranked 53rd in 2019.
[40]
In 2020, the American
U.S. News & World Report
listed Humboldt-Universitat as the 82nd best in the world, climbing eight positions, being among the 100 best in the world in 17 areas out of 29 ranked.
[41]
International partnerships
[
edit
]
HU students can study abroad for a semester or a year at partner institutions such as the
University of Warwick
,
Princeton University
, and the
University of Vienna
.
Notable alumni and faculty
[
edit
]
-
Albert Einstein
, theoretical physicist known for developing the
theory of relativity
and recipient of the
Nobel Prize in Physics
-
Erwin Schrodinger
, physicist who developed a number of fundamental results in
quantum theory
, recipient of the
Nobel Prize in Physics
-
Max Planck
, theoretical physicist and originator of
quantum theory
, recipient of the
Nobel Prize in Physics
-
Max von Laue
, physicist and recipient of the
Nobel Prize in Physics
-
-
Albrecht Kossel
, biochemist who pioneered in the study of genetics and recipient of the
Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
-
-
Otto Hahn
, chemist, pioneer in the fields of
radioactivity
and
radiochemistry
, and recipient of the
Nobel Prize for Chemistry
-
Robert Koch
, physician and microbiologist, discoverer of
anthrax
,
tuberculosis
and
cholera
bacillus
-
Rudolf Virchow
, physician anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, father of modern
pathology
-
Theodor Mommsen
, classical scholar and recipient of the
Nobel Prize in Literature
-
Alfred Wegener
, polar researcher and geophysicist who originated the
continental drift
hypothesis
-
-
Werner Heisenberg
, theoretical physicist and pioneer of
quantum mechanics
-
Karl Weierstrass
, mathematician, considered "the father of modern
analysis
"
-
Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm
, best-known collectors of German and European folk tales
-
Heinrich Heine
, poet best known for his early
lyric poetry
-
Yeshayahu Leibowitz
, public intellectual, scientist, and writer
-
Karl Marx
, philosopher, political theorist, and socialist revolutionary
-
Friedrich Engels
, philosopher and revolutionary
socialist
-
Angela Davis
, political activist, philosopher
-
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
, idealist philosopher and one of the fundamental figures of modern Western philosophy
-
-
Walter Benjamin
, philosopher, cultural critic and essayist
-
Max Stirner
, philosopher and forerunner of
nihilism
and
postmodernism
-
Ernst Cassirer
, idealist philosopher
-
-
Leopold von Ranke
, historian, founder of modern source-based history
-
Barthold Georg Niebuhr
, historian, statesman, banker, father of modern scholarly
historiography
-
Felix Mendelssohn
, composer during the early Romantic period
-
Max Weber
, sociologist and influential figure in modern
social theory
and
social research
-
Georg Simmel
, sociologist and philosopher
-
W.E.B. Du Bois
, civil rights activist and academic
-
Karl Liebknecht
, socialist politician and revolutionary
-
Gustav Stresemann
, statesman during the Weimar Republic and recipient of the
Nobel Peace Prize
-
-
-
Dietrich Bonhoeffer
, theologian, pastor, anti-Nazi dissident, founder of the
Confessing Church
-
Friedrich Schleiermacher
, theologian, philosopher, biblical scholar, considered the "Father of Modern
Protestant theology
"
-
-
- Monika Luke
, international law scholar and former secretary general Amnesty International, Germany
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
Langner, Stefanie.
"Man beruft eben tuchtige Manner und laßt die Universitat sich allmahlich encadrieren ? Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin"
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Ash, Mitchell G. (2006). "Bachelor of What, Master of Whom? The Humboldt Myth and Historical Transformations of Higher Education in German-Speaking Europe and the US1".
European Journal of Education
.
41
(2). Wiley: 245?267.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1465-3435.2006.00258.x
.
ISSN
0141-8211
.
- McClelland, Charles E. (2016).
Berlin, the Mother of All Research Universities: 1860?1918
. Lanham: Lexington Books.
ISBN
978-1-4985-4021-6
.
OCLC
958371470
.
- McClelland, Charles E. (1980).
State, society, and university in Germany 1700-1914
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-22742-1
.
OCLC
708362287
.
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