200th anniversary of the founding of the United States
The
United States Bicentennial
was a series of celebrations and observances during the mid-1970s that paid tribute to historical events leading up to the creation of the
United States of America
as an independent republic. It was a central event in the memory of the
American Revolution
. The Bicentennial culminated on Sunday, July 4, 1976, with the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the
Declaration of Independence
by the
Founding Fathers
in the
Second Continental Congress
.
Background
[
edit
]
The nation had always commemorated the founding as a gesture of patriotism and sometimes as an argument in political battles. Historian Jonathan Crider points out that in the 1850s, editors and orators both North and South claimed their region was the true custodian of the legacy of 1776, as they used the Revolution symbolically in their rhetoric.
[1]
The plans for the Bicentennial began when
Congress
created the
American Revolution Bicentennial Commission
on July 4, 1966.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Initially, the Bicentennial celebration was planned as a single city exposition (titled Expo '76) that would be staged in either
Philadelphia
or
Boston
.
[6]
After 6½ years of tumultuous debate, the Commission recommended that there should not be a single event, and Congress dissolved it on December 11, 1973, and created the
American Revolution Bicentennial Administration
(ARBA), which was charged with encouraging and coordinating locally sponsored events.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
David Ryan, a professor at
University College Cork
, notes that the Bicentennial was celebrated only a year after the
Fall of Saigon
in 1975 and that the
Ford administration
stressed the themes of renewal and rebirth based on a restoration of traditional values, giving a nostalgic and exclusive reading of the American past.
[11]
Logo
[
edit
]
Bruce N. Blackburn
, co-designer of the modernized
NASA insignia
, designed the logo.
[12]
[13]
The logo consisted of a white five-point star inside a stylized star of red, white and blue. It was encircled by the inscription
American Revolution Bicentennial 1776?1976
in
Helvetica
Regular. An early use of the logo was on a 1971 US postage stamp. The logo became a flag that flew at many government facilities throughout the United States and appeared on many other souvenirs and postage stamps issued by the
Postal Service
. NASA painted the logo on the
Vehicle Assembly Building
at the
Kennedy Space Center
in 1976 where it remained until 1998 when the agency replaced it with its own emblem as part of 40th anniversary celebrations.
[14]
1973 Events
[
edit
]
Boston Oil Party
In 1973, history came alive on the shores of Boston Harbor as passionate activists and history enthusiasts recreated one of America's most iconic acts of defiance: the Boston Tea Party. Against the backdrop of Vietnam War protests and civil rights movements, this reenactment served as a poignant reminder of the nation's revolutionary roots and the enduring spirit of resistance.
After months of planning, with organizers collaborating closely with historians to ensure historical accuracy. Participants gathered at Griffin's Wharf, the very site where the original protest unfolded over two centuries prior. Spectators lined the waterfront, eager to witness history recreated.
Beyond its spectacle, the Boston Tea Party reenactment of 1973 served as a catalyst for dialogue.
Participants and spectators boasted signs and effigies, but no longer against the English crown and taxes. This protest was a call for “environmental protection, racial justice, an end to corporate profiteering, and the impeachment of Richard Nixon.”
[15]
Several people threw packages and oil barrels labeled "
Gulf Oil
" and "
Exxon
" into
Boston Harbor
in symbolic opposition to corporate power, in the style of the
Boston Tea Party
.
[16]
This reenactment later was termed as the “Boston Oil Party”, and roughly 10,000 people witnessed the powerful spectacle of the dumping of oil conglomerates, as well as the hanging of an effigy of President Nixon.
[17]
1975 Events
[
edit
]
The official Bicentennial events began April 1, 1975, when the
American Freedom Train
launched in
Wilmington, Delaware
to start its 21-month, 25,388-mile (40,858 km) tour of the 48 contiguous states.
[18]
On April 18, 1975,
President
Gerald Ford
traveled to
Boston
to light a third lantern at the historic
Old North Church
, symbolizing America's third century.
The following day, April 19, he delivered a major address in
Concord, Massachusetts
at the
Old North Bridge
where the "
shot heard round the world
" was fired, commemorating the 200th anniversary of the
Battles of Lexington and Concord
which began the military aspect of the American Revolution.
[20]
According to the
New York Times
“more than 2,000 spectators were on hand” as canons were fired and a Paul Revere reenactor rode through announcing the arrival of British Troops.
[21]
On December 31, 1975, the eve of the Bicentennial Year, Ford recorded a statement to address the
American people
by means of radio and television broadcasts.
[22]
Presidential Proclamation 4411 was signed as an affirmation to the Founding Fathers of the United States principles of
dignity
,
equality
,
government by representation
, and
liberty
.
[23]
1976 Events
[
edit
]
With 1776 being a significant year for the American Revolutionary War, 1976 posed to be the largest for festivities.
Festivities included elaborate
fireworks
in the skies above major US cities. President Ford presided over the display in
Washington, D.C.
which was televised nationally. Celebrations in cities and towns across the nation opened into full effect including celebrations such as
Operation Sail
(Op Sail), a large international fleet parade of tall-masted
sailing ships
gathering first in
New York City
on
Independence Day
and then in Boston about one week later. Other large scale events such as reenactments, parades, and booms in commercialized commemoration spread across the nation as the year went on.
New York
[
edit
]
In addition to the presence of the 'tall ships', navies of many nations sent warships to New York harbor for an
International Naval Review
held the morning of July 4. President Ford sailed down the
Hudson River
into New York harbor aboard the
guided missile cruiser
USS
Wainwright
to review the international fleet and receive salutes from each visiting ship, ending with a salute from the British
guided missile destroyer
HMS
London
. The review ended just above
Liberty Island
at around 10:30 am.
Washington, D.C.
[
edit
]
Johnny Cash
served as the Grand Marshal of the US Bicentennial parade.
[24]
The event was attended by
Queen Elizabeth II
and
Prince Philip
. The royal couple made a state visit to the United States, toured the country, and attended other Bicentennial functions with President and Mrs. Ford. Their visit aboard the
Royal Yacht
Britannia
included stops in Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts.
Also in Washington, D.C., the
Smithsonian Institution
opened a long-term exhibition in its
Arts and Industries Building
replicating the look and feel of the 1876
Centennial Exposition
. Many of the Smithsonian's artifacts dated from the 1876
World's Fair
in Philadelphia which commemorated the 100th anniversary of the independence of the United States. The Bicentennial
Festival of American Folklife
, a collaboration of the Smithsonian with thousands of national and international scholars, folk artisans, and performers, hosted programs in the western part of the National Mall five days a week for twelve weeks in the summer of 1976.
[25]
The Smithsonian also opened the new home of the
National Air and Space Museum
on July 1, 1976.
[26]
Government Celebration
George Washington
was posthumously appointed to the grade of
General of the Armies of the United States
by the congressional joint resolution
Public Law 94-479
passed January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.
[27]
This restored Washington's position as the
highest-ranking military officer in US history
.
[Note 1]
NASA commemorated the Bicentennial by staging a science and technology exhibit housed in a series of geodesic domes in the parking lot of the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) called
Third Century America
. An American flag and the Bicentennial emblem were also painted on the side of the VAB; the emblem remained until 1998, when it was painted over with the NASA insignia. NASA planned for
Viking 1
to land on Mars on July 4, but the landing was delayed to July 20, the anniversary of the
Apollo 11
lunar landing. On the anniversary of the
signing of the Constitution
, NASA held the rollout ceremony of the
first Space Shuttle
(which NASA had planned to name
Constitution
but was, instead, named "Enterprise" in honor of
its fictional namesake
on the television series
Star Trek
[28]
).
Delaware Crossing Reenactment
One of the most compelling historical reenactments unfolded, vividly recreating the pivotal moment when General George Washington led the Continental Army across the treacherous waters of the Delaware River on the night of December 25?26, 1776. This daring maneuver, occurring amid harsh winter conditions, marked a turning point in the American Revolutionary War.
Organizers dedicated meticulous attention to detail in planning this reenactment, ensuring a faithful representation of the challenges faced by Washington and his troops. On November 20 and 21 of 1976, participants immersed themselves in the era by donning period-accurate uniforms and equipping themselves with the tools and weaponry characteristic of that pivotal Christmas night over two centuries prior.
[29]
The reenactment unfolded as a grand spectacle, featuring a flotilla of boats navigating the icy currents of the Delaware River.
Drawing attention from far and wide, the reenactment captured the collective imagination of those who witnessed it. The freezing waters, the echoing commands, and the historical accuracy woven into the event added a poignant touch to the overall Bicentennial celebrations.
Since then, the
Crossing the Delaware
reenactment has occurred every year to relive and recognize this pivotal moment.
Philadelphia
[
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]
While in Philadelphia on July 6, 1976, Queen Elizabeth presented the Bicentennial Bell on behalf of the British people. The bell is a replica of the Liberty Bell, cast at the same foundry?
Whitechapel Bell Foundry
?and bearing the inscription "For the People of the United States of America from the People of Britain 4 July 1976 LET FREEDOM RING."
[30]
Los Angeles
Disneyland
and
The Magic Kingdom
at
Walt Disney World
presented
America on Parade
, an elaborate parade celebrating American history and culture, and featured the
Sherman Brothers
' song "
The Glorious Fourth
". The parade featured nightly fireworks and ran twice daily from June 1975 to September 1976.
Los Angeles observances included the Bicentennial Parade of 1976 on Wilshire Boulevard,
[31]
[32]
[33]
and the Los Angeles City Schools Bicentennial Pageant at
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
, broadcast as part of
Happy Birthday, America
(NBC), hosted by
Paul Anka
,
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
Pacific 21
, a bicentennial exhibition and conference center,
[38]
and Knott's Berry Farm bicentennial celebration.
[39]
Professional Sports Celebrations
The overall theme of the entertainment of
Super Bowl X
, held January 18, was to celebrate the Bicentennial. Players on both teams, the
Pittsburgh Steelers
and the
Dallas Cowboys
, wore a special patch with the Bicentennial Logo on their jerseys; the Cowboys also added red, white, and blue striping to their helmets throughout the 1976 NFL season. The halftime show, featuring the performance group
Up with People
, was entitled "200 Years and Just a Baby: A Tribute to America's Bicentennial".
The
United States Olympic Committee
(USOC) initiated bids to host both the 1976 Summer and Winter Olympic Games in celebration of the Bicentennial.
Los Angeles
bid for the
1976 Summer Olympics
but lost to
Montreal
.
Denver
was awarded the
1976 Winter Olympics
in 1970, but concern over costs led
Colorado
voters to reject a referendum to fund the games and the
International Olympic Committee
awarded the games to
Innsbruck
,
Austria
, the 1964 host.
[40]
As a result, there was no Olympics in the United States in 1976 despite a last minute offer from
Salt Lake City
to host. However,
Lake Placid
would host the
1980 Winter Olympics
, Los Angeles would eventually be awarded the
1984 Summer Olympics
, and Salt Lake City would also eventually be awarded the
2002 Winter Olympics
.
As site of the
Continental Congress
and signing of the Declaration of Independence,
Philadelphia
served as host for the
1976 NBA All-Star Game
, the
1976 National Hockey League All-Star Game
, the
1976 NCAA Final Four
, and the
1976 Major League Baseball All-Star Game
at which President Ford threw out the first pitch.
[41]
The
1976 Pro Bowl
was an exception and was played in New Orleans, likely due to weather concerns.
Other
[
edit
]
Local observances included painting mailboxes and fire hydrants red, white, and blue. A wave of patriotism and nostalgia swept the nation and there was a general feeling that the irate era of the
civil rights movement
, the
Vietnam War
, and the
Watergate
constitutional crisis of 1974 had finally come to an end.
In the summer of 1976, the city of South Bend, Indiana, embarked on a unique project to commemorate the United States Bicentennial: painting its fire hydrants in vibrant colors and patriotic designs. Over four decades later, many of South Bend's painted fire hydrants still stand as reminders of America's Bicentennial celebration.
[42]
Bell Telephone Company
commissioned
Stanley Meltzoff
to create a cover for its 1976 directory to commemorate both the Bicentennial and the centennial of the invention of the
telephone
. Based on
Norman Rockwell
's
The Gossips
, Meltzoff depicted America's great historic and iconic figures using the telephone. It became the biggest selling directory in Bell's history.
[43]
Many national railroads and shortlines painted locomotives or rolling stock in patriotic color schemes, typically numbered 1776 or 1976, and model railroad manufacturers quickly released bicentennial locomotives which were popular among children and adults. Many military units marked aircraft with special designs in honor of the Bicentennial.
John Warner
served as ARBA director.
[44]
The
New Jersey Lottery
operated a special "Bicentennial Lottery" in which the winner received $1,776 per week (before taxes) for 20 years (a total of $1,847,040).
The Bicentennial Wagon Train Pilgrimage began a journey from
Blaine, Washington
on June 8, 1975 concluding at
Valley Forge, Pennsylvania
on July 4, 1976.
[45]
[46]
The
wagon train
pilgrimage traced the original
covered wagon
trade and transportation routes across the United States encompassing the
Bozeman Trail
,
California Trail
,
Gila Trail
,
Great Wagon Road
,
Mormon Trail
,
Natchez Trace Trail
,
Old Post Road
,
Old Spanish Trail
,
Oregon Trail
,
Santa Fe Trail
, and
Wilderness Road
.
[47]
[48]
Karen Steele was the first baby born on July 4, 1976, 12 seconds after midnight, and was referred to as the "Bicentennial Baby". She was featured on
The Today Show
and
Good Morning America
, and received commemorations from President Ford, New Jersey Governor
Brendan Byrne
, and a host of other notables.
Many commercial products, including sports, apparel and collectibles, appeared in red, white, and blue packages in an attempt to tie them to the Bicentennial. Liberty, a brand of Spanish olives, sold their product in glass jars replicating the Liberty Bell during that time. Products were only permitted to display the trademarked Bicentennial logo by paying a license fee to ARBA.
Ceremonial coinage
[
edit
]
The US government also commemorated the Bicentennial through the creation of new designs on national currency. The creation of the ceremonial coinage was both a way to get the American public involved in celebrating the bicentennial, and a way to encourage Americans to collect and purchase more bicentennial memorabilia.
Bicentennial on screen
[
edit
]
Television
[
edit
]
Related network television programs aired July 3?4, 1976
[
edit
]
- The Great American Celebration
, a 12-hour syndicated entertainment program hosted by
Ed McMahon
and airing the night of July 3
- The Inventing of America
(NBC), a two-hour BBC co-production reviewing 200 years of American technological innovations and their impact on the world, co-hosted by
James Burke
and
Raymond Burr
[50]
[51]
- In Celebration of US
(CBS), a 16-hour coverage hosted by
Walter Cronkite
- The Glorious Fourth
(NBC), a 10-hour coverage hosted by
John Chancellor
and
David Brinkley
- The Great American Birthday Party
(ABC), hosted by
Harry Reasoner
- Happy Birthday, America
(NBC), hosted by
Paul Anka
from the
Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum
[37]
- Bob Hope
's Bicentennial Star-Spangled Spectacular
(NBC)
- Best of the Fourth
(NBC), recap with John Chancellor and David Brinkley
- July 4 satellite broadcast of the
University of North Texas
One O'Clock Lab Band
live performance in Moscow (NBC), sponsored by the
US Department of State
- Days of Liberty
(WABC-TV?New York), an animated holiday special
- Goodbye America
(PBS), a mock "newscast" re-enacting a 1776 debate in the
House of Commons
concerning the future of the
Thirteen Colonies
- Eastward Ho!
(WPSX-TV), a half-hour documentary about the Bicentennial Wagon Train, produced by
Pennsylvania State University
(Penn State). Includes the show troupe which traveled with the wagon train and performed at the campsite each night.
The
Bicentennial Minute
was a series of short vignettes aired on CBS from 1974 through the end of 1976 to mark the occasion.
Saturday morning Bicentennial programs
[
edit
]
In the months approaching the Bicentennial,
Schoolhouse Rock!
, a series of educational
cartoon
shorts running on ABC between programs on Saturday mornings, created a sub-series called "History Rock", although the official name was "America Rock". The ten segments covered various aspects of American history and government. Several of the segments, most notably "
I'm Just a Bill
" (discussing the legislative process) and "The Preamble" (which features a variant of the preamble of the Constitution put to music), have become some of
Schoolhouse Rock
's
most popular segments.
In 1974, CBS aired a new animated
Archie
series on Saturday mornings called
The U.S. of Archie
; 16 episodes were made and were shown in reruns until September 1976.
Films
[
edit
]
For the Bicentennial celebration, Hollywood filmmaker
John Huston
directed a short movie?
Independence
(1976)?for the US
National Park Service
which continues to screen at
Independence National Historical Park
in Philadelphia.
[
citation needed
]
The 1976 film
Rocky
cited the Bicentennial in several scenes, mostly during
Apollo Creed
's entering;
Carl Weathers
dressed first as
George Washington
and then as
Uncle Sam
.
[
citation needed
]
The oversized vehicle in
The Big Bus
had a scene in its Bicentennial Dining Room.
Patriotism or Consumerism
[
edit
]
In 1976, the United States marked its bicentennial with grandeur and gusto, commemorating two centuries of nationhood. Yet, beneath the surface of this historic milestone lay a subtle transformation: the bicentennial became not just a celebration of American history, but a branding bonanza. The post-war era had already witnessed a rise in materialism, with possessions increasingly equated with prosperity and status. The bicentennial, with its fervent branding of patriotism, amplified these trends, reinforcing the notion that one's identity could be expressed through consumption.
Branding
The bicentennial celebrations provided a platform for historical reenactments and exhibitions, allowing Americans to engage with their past in tangible ways. Corporate America eagerly joined the branding frenzy, seeing in the bicentennial an opportunity to bolster their brands under the guise of patriotism. Sponsorships and endorsements flooded in, as companies sought to align themselves with the spirit of the occasion. Brands such as McDonalds, Zippo, even Pez candy, all ran patriotic marketing campaigns aimed at taking advantage of the patriotic fever.
Memorabilia
The rebranding didn’t stop with the repackaging of everyday items as patriotic memorabilia. Authors like Tammy S Gordon discuss how suddenly, mundane objects like t-shirts, hats, and even household items were emblazoned with stars and stripes, transforming them into symbols of national pride.
[52]
Brands like Avon Beauty created mass production collections of patriotic items that sent American households into a craze.
Analysis
Critics argue that the commodification of patriotism undermined the integrity of the bicentennial. Historians, such as M.J. Rymsza-Pawlowska, argued that the mass rebranding and marketing reduced a momentous occasion in American history to a marketing gimmick.
[53]
By plastering the flag on every product and event, they contend, the true significance of the bicentennial was overshadowed by commercial interests.
However, supporters of the branding frenzy, such as Neil Harris, argued that it helped democratize the celebrations, making them accessible to a wider audience. By embedding patriotism into everyday products and experiences, they suggest, the bicentennial became more inclusive and engaging for Americans across the country.
[54]
Gifts for the Nation
[
edit
]
A number of nations gave gifts to the US as a token of friendship.
The United Kingdom loaned one of the four existing copies of
Magna Carta
for display in the
US Capitol
. The document was displayed in a case designed by artist
Louis Osman
consisting of gold, stainless steel, rubies, pearls, sapphires, diamonds, and white enamel. This was on a base of
pegmatite
and Yorkshire
sandstone
. The document was displayed atop a gold replica from June 3, 1976 until June 13, 1977, when it was returned. The case and gold replica remain on display in the Capitol.
[55]
Canada through the
National Film Board of Canada
produced the book
Between Friends/Entre Amis
which was a photographic essay of life along the US-Canada border. The book was given to libraries across the US and special editions were presented to President Ford and other officials.
[56]
[57]
The government of France and
Musee du Louvre
assembled an exhibit of paintings in cooperation with the
Detroit Institute of Arts
and the
Metropolitan Museum of Art
that traveled to
Detroit
and New York City after being shown in
Paris
. The exhibit, entitled
French Painting 1774?1830: The Age of Revolution
, included the work of 94 French artists from that period. Many of the 149 works in the exhibit had never been seen outside France and included
Liberty Leading the People
by
Eugene Delacroix
,
Jupiter and Thetis
by
Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres
and a portrait of
Maximilien Robespierre
by
Adelaide Labille-Guiard
.
[58]
Japan's government constructed and furnished the 513-seat Terrace Theatre of
Kennedy Center
in Washington. Many of the original furnishings were removed when the theater was renovated between 2015 and 2019.
[59]
Fifty-three
bonsai
trees from the Nippon Bonsai Association were donated to the
US National Arboretum
.
[60]
King Juan Carlos I
and
Queen Sofia of Spain
presented sculptures of
Bernardo de Galvez
, a hero of the
American Revolutionary War
period and later
Viceroy of New Spain
; and
Don Quixote
,
Cervantes'
fictional hero, on June 3, 1976, on behalf of their nation. The Galvez sculpture is in a park at Virginia Avenue at 21st Street NW, which has been named Galvez Park.
[61]
The Don Quixote sculpture was installed nearby on the grounds of The Kennedy Center. Spain's gift also included an exhibit at the
National Gallery of Art
of eight
Goya
masterpieces from the collection of
Museo del Prado
.
[62]
[63]
King of Norway
Olav V
, Prime Minister of Norway
Odvar Nordli
, and the Norwegian government established the Vinland National Health Sports Center in
Loretto, Minnesota
.
[64]
Gallery
[
edit
]
- Other Commemorative Items
-
Six different Bicentennial buttons designed and sent by two art teachers to President Gerald Ford
-
A box of 15 billiard balls specifically designed to commemorate the Bicentennial
-
Commemorative pewter Bicentennial thermometer depicts an eagle above a laurel wreath with the "1776" and "1976" written inside
-
Betty Ford's "First Mama" purse
-
Special
Michigan license plate design
issued in honor of the bicentennial. Plates of this design were standard issue for all passenger cars registered in Michigan receiving new plates in 1976.
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
In
Bell (2005)
harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBell2005 (
help
)
, William Gardner Bell states that when Washington was recalled back into military service from his retirement in 1798, "Congress passed legislation that would have made him General of the Armies of the United States, but his services were not required in the field and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in 1976, when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor."
How many U.S. Army five-star generals have there been and who were they?
states that with
Public Law 94-479
, President Ford specified that Washington would "rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present. "General of the Armies of the United States" is only associated with two people...one being Washington and the other being John J. Pershing.
References
[
edit
]
- ^
Crider, Jonathan B. (September 1, 2009).
"De Bow's Revolution: The Memory of the American Revolution in the Politics of the Sectional Crisis, 1850-1861"
.
American Nineteenth Century History
.
1-
(3): 317?322.
doi
:
10.1080/14664650903122950
.
S2CID
144611072
.
- ^
"Resolution Establishing the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission - P.L. 89-491"
(PDF)
. U.S. Government Printing Office.
80
Stat.
259
- ^
Johnson, Lyndon B. (March 10, 1966).
"Letter to the President of the Senate and to the Speaker of the House Proposing the Establishment of an American Revolution Bicentennial Commission - March 10, 1966"
.
Internet Archive
. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Service. pp. 302?303.
- ^
Johnson, Lyndon B. (July 8, 1966).
"Statement by the President Announcing the Signing of a Resolution Establishing the American Revolution Bicentennial Commission - July 8, 1966"
. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. pp. 713?714 – via Internet Archive.
- ^
"Records of the American Revolution Bicentennial Administration [ARBA]"
. National Archives and Records Administration. 1995
. Retrieved
May 24,
2011
.
- ^
Linder, Lee (September 25, 1969).
"Who's Having the '76 Birthday Party?"
.
The Tuscaloosa News
. Associated Press
. Retrieved
October 24,
2019
.
- ^
"H.R. 7446 ~ American Revolution Bicentennial Administration Establishment of 1973"
. P.L. 93-179 ~ 87 Stat. 697. Congress.gov. May 3, 1973.
- ^
"American Revolution Bicentennial Administration Establishment - P.L. 93-179"
(PDF)
.
U.S. Government Printing Office
.
87
Stat.
697-2
- ^
Nixon, Richard M. (December 11, 1973).
"Remarks on Signing a Bill Establishing the American Revolution Bicentennial Administration - December 11, 1973"
. Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration. p. 1009 – via Internet Archive.
- ^
"Bicentennial: The U.S. Begins Its Birthday Bash"
.
Time
. April 21, 1975. Archived from
the original
on January 22, 2011
. Retrieved
May 24,
2011
.
- ^
Ryan, David (December 9, 2012).
"Re-enacting Independence through Nostalgia ? The 1976 US Bicentennial after the Vietnam War"
.
FIAR: Forum for Inter-American Research
.
5
(3). International Association of Inter-American Studies: 26?48
. Retrieved
January 29,
2014
.
- ^
Vadukul, Alex (February 18, 2021). "Bruce Blackburn, Designer of Ubiquitous NASA Logo, Dies at 82".
The New York Times
.
- ^
Schwab, Katherine (November 22, 2016).
"Reprinting America's Forgotten 1970s Graphics Standards Manual"
.
Fast Company & Inc
. Retrieved
August 15,
2021
.
- ^
"Restoring Old Glory and a Massive Meatball"
.
NASA
. January 11, 2007
. Retrieved
May 24,
2011
.
- ^
"1973 Boston Tea Party Anniversary"
.
Revolutionary Spaces
. Retrieved
February 25,
2024
.
- ^
Zinn, Howard
(August 12, 2015).
A People's History of the United States
(third ed.). New York: Routledge. p. 562.
ISBN
978-1-3173-2530-7
.
- ^
Times, John Kifner Special to The New York (December 17, 1973).
"Impeachment of Nixon Urged at Re?enactment of Boston Tea Party"
.
The New York Times
.
ISSN
0362-4331
. Retrieved
February 25,
2024
.
- ^
(1)
Wines, Larry (2019).
"The Story of the 1975 - 1976 American Freedom Train"
.
Accuen Media LLC
.
Archived
from the original on April 10, 2019
. Retrieved
November 2,
2019
.
(2)
Barris, Wes.
"The American Freedom Train"
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harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFBell2005 (
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{{
cite news
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Capozzola, Christopher.
"
'It Makes You Want to Believe in the Country': Celebrating the Bicentennial in the Age of Limits" in Beth Bailey & David Farber, eds.,
America in the 70s
(2004) pp 29?45.
- Gordon, Tammy S.
The Spirit of 1976: Commerce, Community, and the Politics of Commemoration.
Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2013.
ISBN
9781625340429
.
- Hall, Simon.
"
'Guerrilla Theater...in the Guise of Red, White, and Blue Bunting': The People's Bicentennial Commission and the Politics of (Un-) Americanism."
Journal of American Studies
(2016): 1?23.
External links
[
edit
]
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