Treaty ending the War of the Austrian Succession
The 1748
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
, sometimes called the
Treaty of Aachen
, ended the
War of the Austrian Succession
, following a
congress
assembled on 24 April 1748 at the
Free Imperial City of Aachen
.
The two main antagonists in the war,
Britain
and
France
, opened
peace talks
in the Dutch city of
Breda
in 1746. Agreement was delayed by
British
hopes of improving their position; when this failed to occur, a draft treaty was agreed on 30 April 1748. A final version was signed on 18 October 1748 by Britain, France, and the
Dutch Republic
.
The terms were then presented to the other
belligerents
, who could either accept them or continue the war on their own.
Austria
,
Spain
, and
Sardinia
had little choice but to comply, and signed separately.
Modena
and
Genoa
joined on 21 January 1749.
The treaty largely failed to resolve the issues that caused the war, while most of the signatories were unhappy with the terms.
Maria Theresa
resented Austria's exclusion from the talks, and blamed Britain for forcing her to accept concessions, while British politicians felt they had received little benefit for the financial subsidies paid to her. These issues, combined with other factors, led to the strategic realignment known as the
Diplomatic Revolution
, and the outbreak of the
Seven Years' War
in 1756.
Background
[
edit
]
Franco-British negotiations began at
Breda
in August 1746 but were deliberately delayed by the
Duke of Newcastle
, who controlled British foreign policy. The death of
Philip V of Spain
in July 1746 seemed an opportunity to break the
Bourbon alliance
, while Newcastle hoped the
Orangist revolution
would revitalise the
Dutch
war effort, and allow the Allies to recover the
Austrian Netherlands
.
Both assumptions proved incorrect; Spanish policy remained largely unchanged, the Dutch army collapsed, and Newcastle later berated himself for his "ignorance, obstinacy, and credulity".
However, despite French victories in
Flanders
, the impact of the British naval blockade was such that throughout 1746, Finance Minister
Machault
repeatedly warned
Louis XV
of the impending collapse of their financial system.
The position became critical after the
Second Battle of Cape Finisterre
in October 1747, as the French navy was no longer strong enough to protect their merchant convoys.
Maria Theresa
made peace with
Bavaria
in
April 1745
, then with
Prussia
in
December
; only British financial subsidies kept Austria in the war thereafter. At a conference in December 1747, Austrian ministers agreed 'the worse peace is preferable to starting another campaign', and drew up proposals for ending the stalemate in
Italy
. They agreed to withdraw Austrian troops from the
Duchy of Modena
and
Republic of Genoa
, confirm
Spanish
control of
Naples
, and provide territorial concessions that would provide
Philip of Spain
with an Italian state.
[5]
In November, Britain signed a convention with Russia for the supply of troops and in February 1748, a Russian corps of 37,000 arrived in the Rhineland.
Lack of progress in Flanders and domestic opposition to the cost of subsidising its allies meant Britain was also ready to end the war. Both France and Britain were prepared to impose terms on their allies if needed, but preferred to avoid dropping them by making a separate peace treaty.
On 30 April 1748, France, Britain, and the Dutch Republic signed a preliminary treaty which included the return of the Austrian Netherlands, the Dutch
Barrier forts
,
Maastricht
and
Bergen op Zoom
. They also guaranteed the Austrian cession of Silesia to Prussia, as well as the Duchies of
Parma
, and
Guastalla
to Philip of Spain. Faced with this, Austria, Sardinia, Spain, Modena and Genoa acceded to the treaty in two separate documents finalised on 4 December 1748 and 21 January 1749 respectively.
Terms
[
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]
These included the following;
- All signatories accept the
Pragmatic Sanction of 1713
;
- Austria
recognises the Prussian acquisition of Silesia
- Austria
cedes the Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla to
Philip of Spain
, second eldest son of
Philip V of Spain
and
Elisabeth Farnese
;
- Austria
cedes minor territories in Italy to Sardinia, including
Vigevano
;
- Austria
withdraws from the
Duchy of Modena
and
Republic of Genoa
, which regain their independence;
- France
withdraws from the Austrian Netherlands and returns the Dutch Barrier forts, Maastricht and Bergen op Zoom;
- Britain and France
exchange
Louisbourg
on
Ile-Royale
for
Madras in India
;
- Spain
renews the
Asiento de Negros
(a monopoly contract to supply slaves to
Spanish America
) which was granted to Britain in the 1713
Treaty of Utrecht
; Britain subsequently renounced this under the
1750 Treaty of Madrid
, in return for £100,000;
- Commission established to resolve competing claims between
French
and
British colonies
in North America.
[9]
France also agrees to expel the Jacobite Prince of Wales,
Charles Edward Stuart
.
[11]
Aftermath
[
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]
The terms of the peace largely failed to resolve the issues that caused the war in the first place, while most of the signatories either resented the concessions they made, or felt they had failed to obtain what they were due. These factors led to the diplomatic re-alignment known as the 1756
Diplomatic Revolution
, and the subsequent
Seven Years' War
.
[12]
Prussia, which doubled in size and wealth with the acquisition of Silesia, was the most obvious beneficiary, Austria arguably the biggest loser. Maria Theresa did not see acceptance of the Pragmatic Sanction as any kind of concession, while she deeply resented Britain's insistence that Austria cede Silesia and the concessions made in Italy.
On the other hand, the Habsburgs survived a potentially disastrous crisis, regained the Austrian Netherlands and largely retained their position in Italy.
Administrative and financial reforms made it stronger in 1750 than 1740, while its strategic position was strengthened by installing Habsburgs as rulers of key territories in Northwest Germany, the
Rhineland
and Northern Italy.
The Spanish considered their territorial gains in Italy inadequate, failed to recover
Menorca
or
Gibraltar
, and viewed the reassertion of British commercial rights in the
Americas
as an insult.
Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia
felt he had been promised the
Duchy of Parma
, but had to content himself with minor cessions from Austria. The war confirmed the decline of the Dutch Republic as a
great power
, and exposed the weakness of their
Barrier forts
, which proved unable to stand up to modern artillery.
Few Frenchmen understood the desperate financial state that required the return of their gains in the Austrian Netherlands; combined with the lack of tangible benefits for helping Prussia, it led to the phrase "as stupid as the Peace".
This view was widely shared; many French statesmen felt Louis XV had panicked, while English writer and politician,
Horace Walpole
, wrote "wonderful it is...why the French have lost so much blood and treasure to so little purpose".
[17]
As a result of the Treaty
Charles Edward Stuart
, the Jacobite Pretender to the thrones of Britain was arrested and exiled from France.
[11]
The decline of the Dutch Republic as a military power exposed the vulnerability of
Hanover
,
George II
's German possession. In exchange for restoring the Barrier forts, France insisted on the return of
Louisbourg, the capture of which in 1745
was one of the few clear British successes of the war. This caused fury in both Britain and America, where it was seen as benefitting the Dutch and Hanover at the expense of the American colonies.
Lord Sandwich
, the lead British negotiator, failed to include the Utrecht terms in the list of Anglo-Spanish agreements renewed in the Preliminaries to the treaty. When he tried to amend the final version, the Spanish refused to approve it, threatening the lucrative import and export trade between the two countries. Since it was equally valuable to the Spanish, they later agreed terms in the October 1750
Treaty of Madrid
, but it was another source of popular dissatisfaction with the treaty.
Austrian resentment of British 'disloyalty' was mirrored in
London
; many questioned the value of the financial subsidies paid to
Vienna
, and suggested Prussia as a more suitable ally. In the 1752
Treaty of Aranjuez
, Austria, Spain and Sardinia agreed to respect each other's boundaries in Italy, ending conflict in this region for nearly fifty years, and allowing Maria Theresa to focus on Germany.
[17]
Her determination to regain Silesia, combined with a feeling the Treaty had left many issues unresolved, meant that it was seen as an armistice, not a peace.
The treaty would mark the end of the Anglo-French
India
-based
First Carnatic War
.
The London celebrations of the signing of the treaty featured music specially composed by
George Frideric Handel
, the
Music for the Royal Fireworks
.
References
[
edit
]
Sources
[
edit
]
- Anderson, Matthew Smith
(1995).
The War of the Austrian Succession 1740?1748
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-582-05950-4
.
- Armour, Ian (2012).
A History of Eastern Europe 1740?1918
. Bloomsbury Academic Press.
ISBN
978-1849664882
.
- Black, Jeremy (1994).
British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783-1793
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-45001-0
.
- Black, Jeremy (1999).
Britain as a Military Power, 1688-1815
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-85728-772-1
.
- Browning, Reed (1975).
The War of the Austrian Succession
(1993 ed.). New York: St Martin's Press.
ISBN
978-0-312-09483-6
.
- Douglas, Hugh (1975).
Charles Edward Stuart
. London: Hale.
ISBN
978-0709148159
.
- Hochedlinger, Michael (2003).
Austria's Wars of Emergence, 1683-1797
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-582-29084-6
.
- Lesaffer, Randall.
"The Peace of Aachen (1748) and the Rise of Multilateral Treaties"
.
Oxford Public International Law
. Retrieved
14 September
2019
.
- Lodge, Richard (1932). "Presidential Address: Sir Benjamin Keene, K.B.: A Study in Anglo-Spanish Relations in the Earlier Part of the Eighteenth Century".
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
.
15
: 1?43.
doi
:
10.2307/3678642
.
JSTOR
3678642
.
S2CID
163640610
.
- McKay, Derek (1983).
The Rise of the Great Powers 1648?1815
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-0-582-48554-9
.
- McGill, William J (1971). "The Roots of Policy: Kaunitz in Vienna and Versailles, 1749-1753".
The Journal of Modern History
.
43
(2): 228?244.
doi
:
10.1086/240615
.
JSTOR
1876544
.
S2CID
145267435
.
- McLynn, Frank (2008).
1759: The Year Britain Became Master of the World
. Vintage.
ISBN
978-0-09-952639-1
.
- Scott, Hamish (2015).
The Birth of a Great Power System, 1740-1815
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-138-13423-2
.
- Sosin, Jack M (1957). "Louisburg and the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748".
The William and Mary Quarterly
.
14
(4): 516?535.
doi
:
10.2307/1918519
.
JSTOR
1918519
.
Bibliography
[
edit
]
- Olson, J.S.; Shadle, R.
Historical Dictionary of the British Empire
. Greenwood Press. (1996): 1095?1099.
ISBN
978-0-313-29367-2
.
- Savelle, Max. "Diplomatic Preliminaries of the Seven Years' War in America".
Canadian Historical Review
. Vol. 20, No. 1 (1939): 17. doi:10.3138/CHR-020-01-04.
External links
[
edit
]
French
Wikisource
has original text related to this article:
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