German minority of Transylvania, Romania
Ethnic group
Transylvanian Saxons
|
---|
|
|
|
c.
11,400?
c.
300,000
[1]
[2]
[3]
|
|
Romania
(mainly
Transylvania
)
| c.
11,400
?
c.
13,000
(
2011
)
[4]
[5]
|
---|
|
|
|
Evangelical Lutheran
majority with
Reformed
,
Roman Catholic
, and
Unitarian
minorities; initially staunchly Roman Catholic until the
Reformation
|
|
Luxembourgers
,
Germans
,
German diaspora
,
Flemings
,
Walloons
,
Austrians
, and even French
|
Lived since the High Middle Ages onwards in Transylvania as well as in other parts of contemporary Romania. Additionally, the Transylvanian Saxons are the eldest ethnic German group in non-native majority German-inhabited
Central
-Eastern Europe, alongside the
Zipsers
in Slovakia and Romania (who began to settle in present-day Slovakia starting in the 13th century).
|
The
Transylvanian Saxons
(German:
Siebenburger Sachsen
;
Transylvanian Saxon
:
Siweberjer Saksen
[6]
[7]
or simply
Soxen
, singularly
Sox
or
Soax
;
Transylvanian Landler
:
Soxn
or
Soxisch
;
Romanian
:
Sa?i ardeleni, sa?i transilv?neni/transilvani
;
Hungarian
:
erdelyi szaszok
) are a people of mainly
German ethnicity
and overall
Germanic
origin ?mostly
Luxembourgish
and from the
Low Countries
initially during the medieval
Ostsiedlung
process, then also from other parts of present-day Germany? who settled in
Transylvania
(
Romanian
:
Transilvania
or
Ardeal
,
Hungarian
:
Erdely
, German:
Siebenburgen or Transsilvanien, historically also Uberwald
,
Latin
:
Transsilvania, Septem Castra or Septem Castrensis
,
Medieval Latin
:
Tr?nsylv?nia
) in various waves, starting from the mid and mid-late 12th century until the mid 19th century.
The first ancestors of the Transylvanian 'Saxons' originally stemmed from
Flanders
,
Hainaut
,
Brabant
,
Liege
,
Zeeland
, Moselle,
Lorraine
, and
Luxembourg
, then situated in the north-western territories of the
Holy Roman Empire
around the 1140s and 1150s.
[8]
Alongside the
Baltic Germans
from
Estonia
and
Latvia
and the
Zipser Germans
(also sometimes known or referred to as
Zipser Saxons
) from
Zips
, northeastern
Slovakia
, as well as
Maramure?
and
Bucovina
, the Transylvanian Saxons are one of the three oldest
German-speaking
and ethnic German groups of the
German diaspora
in
Central-Eastern Europe
, having continuously been living there since the
High Middle Ages
onwards.
[9]
[10]
The Transylvanian Saxons are part of the broader/larger group of
Romanian Germans
(German:
Rumaniendeutsche
,
Romanian
:
Germanii din Romania
) as well, being the eldest and one of the most important of all the constituent sub-groups of this ethnic community.
Their native dialect,
Transylvanian Saxon
(
endonym
:
Siweberjesch Saksesch
, German:
Siebenburgisch-Sachsisch
,
Romanian
:
Dialectul s?sesc
,
limba s?seasc?
, or
s?se?te
) is close to
Luxembourgish
. Nowadays, organisations representing the Transylvanian Saxons exist in
Romania
, Germany,
Austria
, Canada, and the United States (in the latter case most notably 'Alliance of Transylvanian Saxons').
[11]
Other smaller communities of Transylvanian Saxons can be found in South Africa and Australia as well as South America (for example in
Argentina
).
Background
[
edit
]
The legal foundation of their settlement in southern, southeastern, and northeastern Transylvania was officially stipulated within the
Diploma Andreanum
(German:
Der Goldener Freibrief der Siebenburger Sachsen
,
The Golden Charter of the Transylvanian Saxons
,
Romanian
:
Carta de aur a sa?ilor transilv?neni
) issued by
King
Andrew II of Hungary
which allocated them the royal land (
Romanian
:
P?mantul cr?iesc or P?mantul regal
) under local autonomy known as
Konigsboden
or
Fundus Regius
in
Latin
.
[12]
The ancestors of the modern Transylvanian Saxons originally came from the contemporary
Low Countries
(more specifically the regions of
Flanders
,
Hainaut
,
Brabant
,
Liege
, or
Zeeland
) as well as the
Moselle
and
Lorraine
river valleys, and, very importantly,
Luxembourg
as well, then situated in the north-western territories of the
Holy Roman Empire
around the 1140s.
[13]
Further or subsequent waves of German colonists in Transylvania also stemmed from more southern regions of present-day Germany such as
Thuringia
or even
Bavaria
(the latter particularly valid for the Saxons in northeastern Transylvania). The initial waves of Transylvanian Saxons were referred to as
hospites flandrenses et teutonici
or
primi hospites regni
in Latin,
[14]
literally "the Flemish and Teutonic guests" or "the first guests of the kingdom" (i.e. of the former
Kingdom of Hungary
).
For centuries, the main tasks of the Transylvanian Saxons during the High Middle Ages were to protect the easternmost frontiers of the former Kingdom of Hungary against certain invading migratory Asiatic peoples, to bring more agriculture to the region, to instil Central European culture, enhance trade, and boost urbanisation and overall economic development. In the process of fortifying the borders of the Kingdom of Hungary to the east, they were early on helped by the
Teutonic Knights
.
[15]
Later on, they had to further strengthen their hometowns and rural settlements against the expanding
Ottoman Empire
which posed a major threat from the south. The rural settlements were more protected with a series of fortified churches known as 'kirchenburgen' in
standard German
. An alternative term for them in standard German is also '
wehrkirchen
' (i.e. fortified churches).
During the Modern Age, they favoured more and more the Romanians for the latter to obtain increased and rightful political, social, and cultural rights before the Hungarian nobility, with Transylvanian Saxon intellectuals pleading for the
Latinity
of the Romanian language and the Romanian people. They were subsequently allied with the Transylvanian Romanians and thus sided with the
Austrian Empire
in the context of the
Hungarian Revolution of 1848
.
After 1918 and the dissolution of
Austria-Hungary
, in the wake of the
Treaty of Trianon
(signed in 1920), Transylvania united with the
Kingdom of Romania
, after the Transylvanian Saxons also voted for the union with the Romanian kingdom in February 1919. Consequently, the Transylvanian Saxons, together with other ethnic German sub-groups in then newly enlarged Kingdom of Romania (namely the
Banat Swabians
,
Sathmar Swabians
,
Bessarabia Germans
,
Bukovina Germans
, and
Zipser Germans
), became part of
that country's broader German minority
. Today, relatively few still live in Romania, where the second last official census (carried out in 2011) indicated 36,042 Germans, out of which only 11,400 were of Transylvanian Saxon descent.
[16]
As per the
latest Romanian census
conducted in 2022, they are even fewer, as other sub-groups of the entire German community in Romania as well.
Historical overview
[
edit
]
Iacobeni
(German:
Jakobsdorf
, archaically in Romanian also known as
Iac??dorf
), an example of a fortified rural Transylvanian Saxon community established since the High Middle Ages and situated in Sibiu County (German:
Kreis Hermannstadt
).
?eica Mic?
(German:
Kleinschelken
), another example of a fortified rural Transylvanian Saxon community established since the High Middle Ages and situated in Sibiu County (German:
Kreis Hermannstadt
).
Medieval fortified Evangelical Lutheran church at
Dealu Frumos
(German:
Schonberg
) in
Sibiu County
(German:
Kreis Hermannstadt
)
Medieval fortified Evangelical Lutheran church at
Archita
(German:
Arkeden
),
Mure? County
(German:
Mieresch
)
The colonization of Transylvania by ethnic Germans later collectively known as
Transylvanian Saxons
began under the reign of
King
Geza II of Hungary
(1141?1162).
[17]
For several consecutive centuries, the main task of these medieval German-speaking settlers (as that of the
Szeklers
for example in the east of Transylvania) was to defend the southern, southeastern, and northeastern borders of the then
Kingdom of Hungary
against foreign invaders stemming most notably from Central Asia and even far East Asia (e.g.
Cumans
,
Pechenegs
,
Mongols
, and
Tatars
). At the same time, the Saxons were also charged with developing agriculture and introducing Central European culture.
[18]
Later on, the Saxons needed to further fortify both their rural and urban settlements against invading
Ottomans
(or against the invading and expanding
Ottoman Empire
). The Saxons in northeastern Transylvania were also in charge of mining. They can be perceived as being quite related to the
Zipser Saxons
from present-day
Spi?
(German:
Zips
), north-eastern Slovakia (as well as other historical regions of contemporary Romania, namely
Maramure?
and
Bukovina
) given the fact they are two of the oldest ethnic German groups in non-native German-speaking Central and Eastern Europe.
[19]
The first wave of settlement continued well until the end of the 13th century. Although the colonists came mostly from the western
Holy Roman Empire
, they came to be collectively referred to as '
Saxons
' because of Germans working for the royal Hungarian
chancellery
.
[20]
[21]
Gradually, the type of medieval German once spoken by these settlers, craftsmen, guardsmen, miners, and various other workers became locally known as
Saksesch
(i.e.
Transylvanian Saxon
; in its longest form
Siweberjesch-Saksesch
) and remains, still to this day, very closely related to
Luxembourgish
with which it shares many lexical similarities.
The Transylvanian Saxon population has been steadily decreasing since
World War II
as they started leaving the territory of present-day
Romania
en masse during and after World War II, relocating initially to Austria, then predominantly to southern Germany (especially in
Bavaria
).
The process of emigration continued during
communist rule
in Romania. After the collapse of the
Ceau?escu
regime in 1989 and the fall of the East German communist government, many of them continued to emigrate to unified Germany. As a result, today only approximately 12,000 Saxons remain in Romania.
[22]
Nowadays, the vast majority of Transylvanian Saxons live in either Germany or Austria. Nonetheless, a sizable Transylvanian Saxon population also resides today in North America, most notably in the United States (specifically in
Idaho
,
Ohio
, and
Colorado
as well as in Canada, southern
Ontario
more precisely).
On the history of the Transylvanian Saxons, it is very important to note what former federal
German president
and professor doctor
Theodor Heuss
(
FDP
) stated, namely:
"...their history is a piece of German history as a whole..."
.
[23]
Origins and medieval settlements
[
edit
]
The initial phase of German settlement in Transylvania began in the mid and mid-late 12th century, with colonists travelling to and residing in what would later become known in standard German as
Altland
(i.e. ?ara Oltului in Romanian, after the German name for the
Olt
river, or the old land as in a word for word translation from German) or
Hermannstadt Provinz
, based around the picturesque well preserved medieval town of
Hermannstadt
, today's
Sibiu
. Additionally, the surrounding areas of the present-day town of Sibiu/Hermannstadt (former
European Capital of Culture
in 2007 alongside
Luxembourg City
) were formed of marshlands in the High Middle Ages. This is further hinted but also highlighted in the coat of arms of the town of Sibiu/Hermannstadt (
Romanian
:
Cibinium
) by the water lily included therein.
These German settlers were invited by
Geza II
. Although the primary reason for
Geza II
's invitation was border defence, similar to employing the
Szeklers
against foreign invaders in the east of Transylvania, Germans were also sought for their mining expertise as well as the ability to develop the region's economy. Most colonists to this area came from
Luxembourg
(
Luxembourgish
:
Letzebuerg
) and the
Moselle River
region (see for instance
Medardus de Nympz
, former knight and founder of the fortified village of Niemesch/Nem?a in
Mo?na
).
[24]
A second phase of German settlement during the early 13th century consisted of settlers primarily stemming from the
Rhineland
region, the southern
Low Countries
, and the Moselle region, with others from
Thuringia
, Bavaria, and even from
France
. A settlement in northeastern Transylvania was centered on the town of
Nosen
, the later
Bistritz
(
Romanian
:
Bistri?a
), located on the
Bistri?a River
. The surrounding area became known as the
Nosnerland
. That area was important for mining in the Middle Ages.
Continued immigration from the Empire expanded the area of the Saxons further to the east. Settlers from the Hermannstadt region spread into the
Hartibaciu River
valley (German:
Harbachtal
) and to the foot of the
Cibin
(German:
Zibin
) and Sebe? (German:
Muhlbacher
) mountains.
The latter region, centered around the town of
Muhlbach
(
Romanian
:
Sebe?
), was known as
Unterwald
. To the north of Hermannstadt they settled what they called the
Weinland
including the village of
Nympz
(Latin for
Nem?a
/
Nimesch
) near
Mediasch
(
Romanian
:
Media?
). Allegedly, the term
Saxon
was applied to all Germans of these historical regions because the first German settlers who came to the Kingdom of Hungary were either poor miners or groups of convicts from Saxony.
[25]
In 1211, King
Andrew II of Hungary
invited the
Teutonic Knights
to settle and defend the
Burzenland
in the southeastern corner of Transylvania. To guard the mountain passes of the
Carpathians
(German:
Karpaten
) against the
Cumans
, the knights constructed numerous castles and towns, including the major city of
Kronstadt
(
Romanian
:
Bra?ov
).
Alarmed by the knights' rapidly expanding power, in 1225 King
Andrew II
expelled the Teutonic Order from Transylvania permanently, which henceforth relocated to
Prussia
in 1226, although the colonists remained in
Burzenland
. The Kingdom of Hungary's medieval eastern borders were therefore defended in the northeast by the
Nosnerland
Saxons, in the east by the Hungarian border guard tribe of the Szekelys, in the southeast by the castles built by the Teutonic Knights and
Burzenland
Saxons and in the south by the Altland Saxons.
A common interpretation of the tale of the
Pied Piper of Hamelin
, dated to 26 June 1284 and recorded in Hamelin records that (the earliest of such records dating from 1384: "It is 100 years since our children left") when a group of 130 children from the town of Hamelin (German:
Hameln
), in present-day
Lower Saxony
, were led away from their hometown by a piper (who may be a folk memory of a
lokator
) is that this related to an emigration event as part of the
Ostsiedlung
(i.e. Eastern settlement). The destination is usually supposed to have been
Prignitz
,
Uckermark
, and
Pomerania
, but a minor alternative theory suggests settlement in Transylvania.
[26]
[27]
[28]
The proper usage of the term Saxon in the context of medieval Transylvania
[
edit
]
In the context of medieval Transylvania, the term
Saxon
was used to denote a nobleman's title and not necessarily someone who was German-speaking.
[29]
In these regards, the Saxon title could have been awarded to someone who was a non-native German speaker as well. It is, therefore, very important to highlight the fact that not all Transylvanian Saxon settlers were German-speaking given the fact that they also stemmed from the contemporary
Low Countries
(i.e. aside from Luxembourg, also contemporary
Netherlands
and
Belgium
) and from modern day France as well. Additionally, it is equally important to mention the fact that the family name 'Sas' or 'Sasu' in
Romanian
and 'Szasz' respectively in
Hungarian
could denote both an ethnic lineage as well as a social liaison to the Saxon title awarded in Transylvania during the High Middle Ages.
Transylvanian Saxon ethnic consciousness
[
edit
]
Hence, taking in consideration the aforementioned regarding the Saxon title in high medieval Transylvania, the Transylvanian Saxons' ethnic consciousness subsequently solidified after the first waves of settlers from Western Europe arrived in the region and was further reinforced or revitalised with new waves of settlers from central and southern present-day Germany during the
Modern Age
, more specifically during the 19th century. Furthermore, Transylvanian Saxon intellectual
Stephan Ludwig Roth
also pleaded for a strengthening of the German element in Transylvania during the 19th century by means of subsequent waves of settlers stemming from contemporary Germany while at the same time firstly supporting the rights of the ethnic Romanians.
Medieval organization
[
edit
]
Legal organization
[
edit
]
Map depicting the local autonomies in the Kingdom of Hungary during the 13th century (blue grey denotes Transylvanian Saxon autonomous medieval seats/territories).
[c]
Romanian-language map depicting the total territorial extent of the Saxon lands/seats in southern, south-eastern, and north-eastern Transylvania.
Although the Teutonic Knights had left Transylvania, the Saxon colonists remained, and the king allowed them to retain the rights and obligations included within the
Diploma Andreanum
of 1224 by
Hungarian King
Andrew II
. This document conferred upon the German population of the territory between
Dr?u?eni
(German:
Draas
,
Romanian
:
Dr?u?eni
) and
Or??tie
(German:
Broos
,
Romanian
:
Or??tie
) both administrative and religious autonomy and defined their obligations towards the Hungarian monarchs. Consequently, they had to pay yearly tax to the king and provide military contributions to the royal army in case of danger of attack from abroad.
Otherwise, they enjoyed
suzerainty
; even Hungarians could not settle down in the Saxon territories. The territory colonized by Germans covered an area of about 30,000 km
2
(10,000 sq. mi.). The region was called Royal Lands or Saxon Lands (German:
Konigsboden
;
Hungarian
:
Kiralyfold or Szaszfold
;
Romanian
:
P?mantul cr?iesc
;
Latin
:
Terra Saxonum or Fundus Regius
). During the reign of Hungarian King
Charles I
(probably 1325?1329; also referred to as
Charles Robert d'Anjou
), the Saxons were organized in the Saxon Chairs (or seats) as follows:
Coat of arms
|
Seat
|
Town
|
|
Repser Stuhl
|
Reps/Rappes (
Rupea
)
|
|
Grossschenker Stuhl
|
Groß-Schenk/Schoink (
Cincu
)
|
|
Schassburger Stuhl
|
Schaßburg/Schasbrich (
Sighi?oara
)
|
|
Muhlbacher Stuhl
|
Muhlbach/Melnbach (
Sebe?
)
|
|
Brooser Stuhl
|
Broos (
Or??tie
)
|
|
Hermannstadter Hauptstuhl
[d]
|
Hermannstadt/Harmeschtat (
Sibiu
)
|
|
Reussmarkter Stuhl
|
Reussmarkt/Reismuert (
Miercurea Sibiului
)
|
|
Mediascher Stuhl
|
Mediasch/Medwesch (
Media?
)
|
|
Schelker Stuhl
|
Marktschelken/Markt?ielken (
?eica Mare
)
|
The territorial extent of the aforementioned Saxon seats can be clearly seen in depth in the maps from the gallery below:
Aside from the Saxon seats, there had also been two districts, namely Bistritz/Bistri?a and Kronstadt/Bra?ov, which had the following territorial extent, as depicted in the maps below:
-
Bistritzer Distrikt
-
Kronstadter Distrikt
Religious organizations
[
edit
]
Along with the Teutonic Order, other religious organizations important to the development of German communities were the
Cistercian
abbeys of
Igrisch
(Igri?) in the
Banat
region respectively
Kerz
(Car?a) in
Fogaraschland
(?ara F?g?ra?ului). The earliest religious organization of the Saxons was the
Provostship
of Hermannstadt (now
Sibiu
), founded 20 December 1191. In its early years, it included the territories of Hermannstadt,
Leschkirch
(Nocrich), and
Groß-Schenk
(Cincu), the areas that were colonized the earliest by ethnic Germans in the region.
Under the influence of
Johannes Honterus
, the great majority of the Transylvanian Saxons embraced the new creed of
Martin Luther
during the
Protestant Reformation
. The first
superintendent
of the Saxons Evangelical Church,
Paul Wiener
, was elected by Saxon pastors at a
synod
on 6 February 1553.
[30]
Almost all became
Lutheran Protestants
, with very few
Calvinists
, while other minor segments of the Transylvanian Saxon society remained staunchly
Catholic
(of
Latin Church
, more specifically) or were converted to Catholicism later on. Nonetheless, one of the consequences of the Reformation was the emergence of an almost perfect equivalence, in the Transylvanian context, of the terms Lutheran and Saxon, with the Lutheran Church in Transylvania being de facto a "Volkskirche", i.e.
the "national church" of the Transylvanian Saxons
(or the people's church of the Saxons).
[
citation needed
]
-
Car?a
(German:
Kerz
) medieval monastery
-
H?rman
(German:
Honigberg
) Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church
-
Biertan fortified church
(German:
Birthalm
) was the see of the Evangelical Lutheran Bishop in Transylvania between 1572 and 1867.
-
Valea Viilor
(German:
Wurmloch
) Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church
-
Saschiz
(German:
Keisd or Hunenburg
) Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church
-
Viscri
(German:
Weisskirch
) Evangelical Lutheran medieval fortified church
Fortification of the towns
[
edit
]
The
Mongol invasion
of 1241?42 devastated much of the Kingdom of Hungary. Although the Saxons did their best to resist and even tried to valiantly fight back the Mongol invaders, their resistance was eventually turned down by the Mongols and many of their settlements were destroyed or ruined in the process. After the Mongols retreated from Transylvania, in the event of another invasion, many Transylvanian towns were fortified with stone castles and an emphasis was put on developing towns economically. In the Middle Ages, approximately 300 villages were defended by the
Kirchenburgen
, or
fortified churches
with massive walls and watch towers.
[31]
Although many of these fortified churches have fallen into either decay or ruin, nowadays the south-eastern region of
Transylvania
still has one of the highest density of existing fortified churches from the 13th to 16th centuries
[32]
as more than 150 villages in the area count various types of fortified churches in good shape, seven of them being included in the UNESCO
World Heritage
under the name of
Villages with fortified churches in Transylvania
. The rapid expansion of cities populated by the Saxons led to Transylvania being known in German as
Siebenburgen
and
Septem Castra
or
Septem Castrensis
in
Latin
[e]
, referring to seven of the fortified towns (see
Historical names of Transylvania
), most likely:
Other potential candidates for this list include:
Other notable urban Saxon settlements include:
Fortification of the villages
[
edit
]
In addition to fortifying their towns over the passing of time, the Transylvanian Saxons also had to fortify their villages by building their fortified churches (the Transylvanian Saxons were initially strongly
Roman Catholic
then
Evangelical Lutheran
after the
Reformation
).
These fortified churches, or
kirchenburgen
as they are known in standard German, had defensive capacities in the event of a foreign attack on a rural Transylvanian Saxon community (e.g. extensive inner and outer walls and a fortified watch tower). Such an attack would often stem from the
Cumans
, for example, or from the
Pechenegs
. It was estimated that there are approximately 300 such villages with fortified churches built by the Saxons in Transylvania during the Middle Ages.
[34]
The majority of them are still in very good to relatively good shape to this day, after further consolidation and renovation based on European funds or Norwegian grants (for example in
Alma Vii
or
Laslea
), but also based on foreign donations.
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
Nevertheless, there also some still left in ruin or decay, since the vast majority of the Saxons in their respective villages left them deserted during either before 1989 and after 1989 while emigrating for Western Europe or North America.
Medieval colonies outside the Carpathian arch
[
edit
]
The ruins of the Roman Catholic cathedral to which the Transylvanian Saxons adhered in
Baia
, present-day
Suceava County
.
The ruins of the Roman Catholic cathedral to which the Transylvanian Saxons adhered in
Baia
, present-day
Suceava County
.
The ruins of the Roman Catholic cathedral at Baia as seen in autumn.
The Transylvanian Saxons also colonized areas outside the Carpathian arch, and, implicitly, outside their then newly native lands across Transylvania starting in the mid and mid-late 12th century. Those areas pertained to the neighbouring and emerging Romanian medieval principalities of
Moldavia
(to the east) and
Wallachia
(to the south).
In this particular process, they founded or co-founded major historical settlements on the territory of both aforementioned Romanian principalities such as
Targu Neam?
(German:
Niamtz
),
Baia
(German:
Stadt Molde or Moldennmarkt
),
Targovi?te
(German:
Tergowisch
), or
Campulung
(German:
Langenau
).
[39]
In the case of the first settlement (i.e. Targu Neam?), they could have been equally helped in establishing it by the
Teutonic Knights
. Saxons in Wallachia also settled in Ramnic (i.e. present-day
Ramnicu Valcea
) and
Pite?ti
(German:
Pitesk
).
[40]
Saxon colonization in Moldavia had likely occurred through a crossing from the Bistri?a area eastward and northward whereas Saxon colonization in Wallachia had likely occurred from the Sibiu (German:
Hermannstadt
) area. Moreover, under the title of
Schultheiß
(German:
?oltuz
), ethnic Germans were even briefly in charge of some of these Romanian settlements during the
High Middle Ages
.
Additionally, German potters and merchants were also present in the former Moldavian capital of
Suceava
at the end of the 14th century.
[41]
Historically, the town of Suceava has also been known in
Old High German
as
Sedschopff
.
[42]
It is therefore known that Suceava had a small yet influent and thriving community of Transylvanian Saxons in medieval times.
[43]
The newly arrived Saxons outside the Carpathian arch in the emerging medieval Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia brought urbanisation, craftsmanship, trade, and the so-called
German law
, under which the local administrations of medieval Romanian towns had operated in the beginning.
[44]
In the medieval towns situated in the highlands of the Principality of Moldavia (or what would later become
Bukovina
starting in the
Modern Age
), namely Suceava or
Campulung Moldovenesc
(German:
Kimpolung
), the type of German town law which operated there was the
Magdeburg law
. Furthermore, the
Teutonic Knights
were also present in
Siret
(German:
Sereth
) where they built a fortress on a hill near the town during the early 13th century.
[45]
[46]
However, throughout the passing of time, demographically, their numbers gradually dwindled and had been subsequently
assimilated
in the local medieval Wallachian and Moldavian cultures by the overwhelming Romanian ethnic majority.
Status of privileged class in Transylvania
[
edit
]
Along with the largely
Hungarian
-Transylvanian
nobility
and the
Szekelys
, the Transylvanian Saxons were members of the
Unio Trium Nationum
(or 'Union of the Three Nations'), which was a charter signed in 1438. This agreement preserved a considerable degree of political rights for the three aforementioned groups but excluded the largely
Hungarian
and Romanian
peasantry
from political life in the principality.
During the
Protestant Reformation
, most Transylvanian Saxons converted to
Lutheranism
. As the semi-independent
Principality of Transylvania
was one of the most religiously tolerant states in Europe at the time, the Saxons were allowed to practice their own religion (meaning that they enjoyed religious autonomy). However, the
Habsburgs
still promoted
Roman Catholicism
to the Saxons during the
Counter-Reformation
. Currently in Romania, about 60% of ethnic Germans reported being Roman Catholic and 40% Protestant (see
Religion in Romania
).
Warfare
between the
Habsburg monarchy
and Hungary against the
Ottoman Empire
from the 16th?18th centuries decreased the population of Transylvanian Saxons. All throughout this period of time, the Saxons in Transylvania served as administrators and military officers. When the Principality of Transylvania came under
Habsburg
control, a smaller third phase of settlement took place to revitalise their demographics.
This wave of settlement included exiled Protestants from
Upper Austria
(the
Transylvanian Landlers
namely), who were given land near Hermannstadt (
Sibiu
). The predominantly German-populated Hermannstadt was a noteworthy cultural center within Transylvania in the past, while Kronstadt (
Bra?ov
) represented a vital political center for the Transylvanian Saxons. Bra?ov/Kronstadt was more populous compared to Sibiu/Hermannstadt but historically the latter remained the most important town in Transylvania for the Transylvanian Saxons (as a well as a very important town for the Transylvanian Romanians).
Loss of elite status and unification with the Kingdom of Romania
[
edit
]
Emperor
Joseph II
attempted to revoke the
Unio Trium Nationum
in the late 18th century. His actions were aimed at the political inequality within Transylvania, especially the political strength of the Saxons. Although his actions were ultimately rescinded, many Saxons began to see themselves as being a small minority opposed by nationalist Romanians and Hungarians. Although they remained a rich and influential group, the Saxons were no longer a dominant class within Modern Age Transylvania.
The Hungarians, on the other hand, supported complete unification of Transylvania with the rest of Hungary.
Stephan Ludwig Roth
, an Evangelical Lutheran pastor and intellectual who led the German support for Romanian political rights, eventually opposed the unification of Transylvania with Hungary and was executed by the Hungarian military tribunal during the revolution.
Although the Hungarian control over Transylvania was defeated by Austrian and
Imperial Russian
forces in 1849, the
Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867
(German:
Ausgleich
) between Austria and Hungary in 1867 did not represent a positive transformation for the political rights of the Transylvanian Saxons. After the end of
World War I
, on 8 January 1919, the representatives of the Transylvanian Saxons decided to support the unification of Transylvania with the
Kingdom of Romania
, as did other German groups in the newly enlarged state (e.g.
Bessarabia Germans
or
Bukovina Germans
).
They were promised full minority rights, but many wealthy Saxons lost part of their land in the land reform process that was implemented in the whole of Romania after World War I. Subsequently, taking into account the rise of
Adolf Hitler
in
Nazi Germany
, many Transylvanian Saxons became staunch supporters of
national socialism
, with the
Evangelical Lutheran Church
losing, eventually, very much of its influence in the community as time passed by, shortly before and during the outbreak of
World War II
.
World War II and contemporary history
[
edit
]
In February 1942 and May 1943, Germany concluded agreements with Hungary and Romania respectively, following which the Germans who were fit for military service, although they were either Hungarian citizens (in northern Transylvania, entered the composition of the Hungarian state through the
Second Vienna Award
) or Romanian citizens (in southern Transylvania, remaining part of Romania), could be incorporated into the
regular German military units
, into the
Waffen-SS
and into war-producing enterprises or into the
Organisation Todt
.
As a result of these agreements, approximately 95% of the members of the German ethnic group who were fit for military service (Transylvanian Saxons and
Banat Swabians
) voluntarily enrolled into the Waffen-SS units (approximately 63,000 people), with several thousand serving in the special units of the SS Security Service (SD-Sonderkommandos), of which at least 2,000 ethnic Germans were enrolled in the concentration camps (KZ-Wachkompanien), of which at least 55% served in extermination camps, predominantly in Auschwitz and Lublin.
[47]
[48]
[49]
About 15% of the Romanian ethnic Germans who served in the Waffen-SS died in the war, with only a few thousand survivors returning to Romania.
[50]
When Romania signed a peace treaty with the Soviets in 1944, the German military began withdrawing the Saxons from Transylvania; this operation was most thorough with the Saxons of the Nosnerland (Bistri?a area). Around 100,000 Germans fled before the Soviet
Red Army
, but Romania did not conduct the
expulsion of Germans
as did neighboring countries at war's end. However, more than 70,000 Germans from Romania were
arrested by the Soviet Army and sent to labour camps
in contemporary Ukraine (more specifically in
Donbas
) for alleged cooperation with Nazi Germany.
In 1989, there were still 95,000 Saxons living in Romania (approx. 40% of the population of 1910), and between 1991 and 1992 another 75,000 emigrated. Their number shrank to 14,770 according to the data provided by the
Evangelical Church of the Augsburg Confession in Romania
in 2003.
[51]
Because they are considered
Auslandsdeutsche
("Germans from abroad") by the German government, the Saxons have the right to German citizenship under the law of return. Numerous Saxons have emigrated to Germany, especially after the fall of the
Eastern Bloc
in 1989 and are represented by the
Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany
.
Because of this constant emigration from Romania, the population of Saxons has been gradually dwindling. At the same time, especially after Romania's accession to
NATO
and the EU, many Transylvanian Saxons are returning from Germany, reclaiming property lost to the former communist regime and/or starting up
small and medium-sized enterprises
. The Saxons remaining in Romania are represented by the
Democratic Forum of Germans in Romania
(FDGR/DFDR), the political platform that gave Romania its fifth and incumbent president,
Klaus Iohannis
, who was firstly elected in
2014
and then re-elected by a landslide in
2019
.
Culture
[
edit
]
Before their expulsion from communist Romania by communist and
securist
Romanian authorities, the Transylvanian Saxons formed distinct communities in their towns and villages, where they maintained their
ethnic tradition
characterised by specific customs,
folklore
, way of life, and distinctive clothing style (i.e.
national costumes
or
Sachsische Trachten
). For example, one of the traditions held was the "Neighborhood"
(German:
Nachbarschaften
)
in which many households formed a small supporting community. This, according to some scholars, is of
ancient German
origin.
-
The
Sachsenspiegel
depicting the
Ostsiedlung
process. Upper part: the locator (with a special hat) receives the foundation charter from the landlord. The settlers clear the forest and build houses. Lower part: the locator acts as the judge in the village.
-
National costumes of the Transylvanian Saxons at a folk dance performed in Germany (February 2015)
-
The "community chest" (German:
Nachbarschafts kasten
) in which the Saxon fraternity held their documents
-
The "community badge"
(German:
Nachbarschaft Convener
)
-
The historical coat of arms of the Transylvanian Saxons
[g]
-
Alternative historical coat of arms of the Transylvanian Saxons
-
Transylvanian Saxon women in traditional costumes attempting a folk dance
-
Traditional Transylvanian Saxon carpet
-
Traditional Transylvanian Saxon carpet
-
Traditional Transylvanian Saxon costumes from Wallendorf (Unirea village, now part of
Bistri?a
,
Bistri?a-N?s?ud County
)
-
Interior of a traditional Transylvanian Saxon house
-
Interior of a traditional Transylvanian Saxon house
Cuisine
[
edit
]
Hanklich from a local restaurant in Sibiu/Hermannstadt
Hanklich from a local bakery in Bra?ov/Kronstadt
The traditional cuisine of the Transylvanian Saxons is very similar to that of the Romanians and the Hungarians living in Transylvania as well as to those of the
Germans
,
Austrians
, or
Alemannic
Swiss
(i.e. from
German-speaking Switzerland
). In these regards, the Transylvanian Saxon cuisine can be regarded as quintessentially
Central European
. It also shares some identical dishes with the
Austrian cuisine
such as
cremeschnitte
(which has also been traditionally served in
Bukovina
as well).
[52]
One prominent example of a local traditional dessert of the Transylvanian Saxons is the
hanklich
(
Romanian
:
hencle? or hencle? s?sesc
), a sweet cheese pie with powdered sugar on top (variations include plums as main ingredients, raisins, or other dry fruits).
[53]
[54]
This particular pastry is still served in restaurants and bakeries in southern Transylvania, particularly in
Bra?ov
and
Sibiu
counties, where, historically, there had been a more significant Transylvanian Saxon ethnic presence compared to the other counties across Transylvania. In Romanian, it is also known as
lichiu s?sesc
or just
lichiu
.
[55]
Another notable example of a traditional Transylvanian Saxon dish is
kipferl
(
Romanian
:
cornule?e
) which can be filled with vanilla, many types of fruit jams, but also with meat.
[56]
[57]
Another traditional Transylvanian Saxon dish is
palukes
.
[58]
Kartoffelknodel
is yet another noteworthy traditional Transylvanian Saxon delight.
[59]
Other traditional Transylvanian Saxon dishes include:
Dialect
[
edit
]
The Transylvanian Saxon dialect (
endonym
:
Siweberjesch-Saksesch
or simply just
Saksesch
; German:
Siebenburgisch-Sachsisch
) is a very conservative and rather archaic
German dialect
that has evolved throughout the passing of time relatively isolated from other German dialects (apart, most notably, from
Transylvanian Landler
). It has also come in contact with
Romanian
and
Hungarian
from which several words were derived. Nevertheless, Transylvanian Saxon is very similar to
Luxembourgish
and sounds as a form of medieval German (e.g.
Old High German
or
Middle High German
).
The similarities with
Luxembourgish
are both in lexical nature and grammar nature. It also has a series of characters which are different than in standard German (i.e. Hochdeutsch), for example 'a' (or
dumpfes a
as it is known in standard German) which is pronounced as in
Norwegian
or
Danish
.
[61]
It is also important to note the fact that even proper names of some Transylvanian Saxon localities sound very similar to Luxembourgish (e.g. '
Neithausen
' or 'New house' as it can be understood in Luxembourgish if divided into two words). The earliest text in Transylvanian Saxon was written by Johannes Troster in 1666.
[62]
In
comparative linguistics
, Transylvanian Saxon is a
West Central German
dialect which is part of the
Moselle Franconian branch
. Historically, it has been spoken more in rural areas of Transylvania and to a lesser extent in the urban settlements where Transylvanian Saxons lived. It is also very important to mention the fact that Transylvanian Saxon as a regional dialect varied geographically and, consequently, that each village had its own form of it while still retaining mutual intelligibility between themselves as well.
Literature
[
edit
]
The Transylvanian Saxon literature represents a part of the
German literature
in Central and Eastern Europe as well as a part of
Romanian literature
. It has been written by Transylvanian Saxon writers since the Middle Ages onwards, in
Latin
, the Transylvanian Saxon dialect, and Standard German. Writers of partial German/Transylvanian Saxon descent from Transylvania such as
Nicolae Breban
have also been writing in Romanian. The Transylvanian Saxon literature consists of both prose and poems, ranging from folk tales, folk ballads, and ecclesiastical texts such as prayers. Notable Transylvanian Saxon writers include Josef/Joseph Haltrich and Dutz Schuster (also known as Gustav Schuster-Dutz; full name at birth: Gustav Michael Julius Schuster).
Anthem
[
edit
]
Das
Siebenburgenlied
(i.e.
The song of Transylvania
) is the regional anthem of the Transylvanian Saxon community as well as an unofficial regional hymn of Transylvania, praising the region as a land of blessings and great natural beauty. It was written and composed in the mid 19th century. The lyricist was Maximilian Leopold Moltke and the composer was Transylvanian Saxon Johann Lukas Hedwig from
H?lchiu
(German:
Heldsdorf
). The anthem is also known as
Siebenburgen, Land des Segens
(literally
Transylvania, land of blessings
).
[63]
Famous Transylvanian Saxons
[
edit
]
Famous Transylvanian Saxons include intellectuals
Johannes Honterus
,
Christian Schesaeus
,
Johannes Sommer
,
Samuel von Brukenthal
,
Georg Maurer
,
Johann Bohm
, or
Stephan Ludwig Roth
, composers such as
Georg Meyndt
and
Carl Filtsch
, visual artists such as
Fritz Schullerus
,
Edith Soterius von Sachsenheim
, or
Friedrich Miess
, scientists such as
Hermann Oberth
and
Conrad Haas
, or sportsmen such as
Michael Klein
,
Mora Windt-Martini
, or
Otto Tellmann
. Well known Transylvanian Saxon politicians and administrative leaders include
Michael Weiß
(former mayor of Bra?ov/Kronstadt),
Klaus Johannis
(current
President of Romania
and former mayor of Sibiu/Hermannstadt),
Iancu Sasul
(i.e. John the Saxon),
Johannes Benkner
(a former mayor of Bra?ov/Kronstadt), or
Astrid Fodor
(current mayor of Sibu/Hermannstadt).
-
Statue of Johannes Honterus in
Bra?ov
(German:
Kronstadt
) by German sculptor
Harro Magnussen
-
Stephan Ludwig Roth, intellectual and national hero for both the Transylvanian Saxons and the Romanians
-
Samuel von Brukenthal, Transylvanian Saxon intellectual and baron
-
Edith Soterius von Sachsenheim, visual artist
-
Georg Meyndt, composer
-
Hermann Oberth, physicist and engineer
Further reading
[
edit
]
- A?ezarea sa?ilor in Transilvania
(i.e.
The settlement of the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania
) by archaeologist and professor doctor Thomas Nagler
[64]
[65]
- Pove?ti din folclorul germanilor din Romania
by Roland Schenn, Corint publishing house, 2014 (in
Romanian
)
- Meschendorf
by Jessica Klein (in English and German)
- Palukes fur die Seele: Gedichte aus Siebenburgen
by Yasmin Mai-Schoger (poetry book in German)
- The Rise and Fall of Saxon Transylvania
by C?t?lin Gruia (in English)
- The literary works of
Josef Haltrich
, Transylvanian Saxon writer and collector of folktales
- The literary works of
Dutz Schuster
, Transylvanian Saxon writer and poet
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
- ^
or
Sa?i transilvani
- ^
The Hungarian King who invited the first German/Saxon settlers in Transylvania during the
High Middle Ages
.
- ^
The small blue grey-coloured region to the north of the map is situated in present-day
Slovakia
and represents the Zips or
Spi? region
where
Zipser Germans
or
Zipser Saxons
, as they are also known and sometimes referred to, were invited to settle by the Hungarian Kings throughout the passing of time during the High and Late Middle Ages as well.
- ^
'Hauptstuhl' means head/high seat and this one in particular was the most important administrative unit and centre of the Transylvanian Saxons throughout the passing of time, in cultural, religious, and political regards.
- ^
Although either
Septem Castra
or
Septem Castrensis
can actually refer to the seven Roman forts which existed prior to the arrival of the Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania as well (given the fact that 'castra' was Latin for 'fortified garrison').
[33]
- ^
Nosen is the archaic name of the town.
- ^
As depicted for the
Saxon University
(German:
Sachsische Nationsuniversitat
,
Latin
:
Universitas Saxonum
,
Romanian
:
Universitatea S?seasc?
)
References
[
edit
]
- ^
The lowest figure displays data according to the
2011 Romanian census
solely for the population living in Romania at that time.
- ^
The lowest figure indicates the approximate contemporary distribution mostly in Transylvania, central Romania, whereas the highest one applies worldwide.
- ^
"Siebenburgen und die Siebenburger Sachsen"
.
Siebenburgisches Kulturzentrum Schloss Horneck e. V.
(in German)
. Retrieved
28 January
2023
.
- ^
Nowotnick, Michaela (30 December 2016).
"Herbst uber Siebenburgen"
.
Neue Zurcher Zeitung
.
- ^
According to the
2011 Romanian census
- ^
Verband der Siebenburger Sachsen in Deutschland e.V. (i.e.
Association of Transylvanian Saxons in Germany
) (10 June 2009).
"Bodo Lottgen: Positives Einwirken und Mut zur Veranderung"
.
Siebenburgische Zeitung
(in German)
. Retrieved
23 February
2023
.
- ^
Fadderwasch (25 July 2010).
"Ken det Vergeßen"
.
Siebenburgische Zeitung
(in German)
. Retrieved
23 February
2023
.
- ^
Prof. Jan de Maere: FLANDRENSES, MILITES ET HOSPITES" A HISTORY OF TRANSYLVANIA (2013) Link:
[1]
- ^
Siebenburgisches Kulturzentrum Schloss Horneck E.V.
"Transylvania and the Transylvanian Saxons"
.
Schloss Horneck
. Retrieved
9 April
2023
.
- ^
Victor Rou? (14 January 2023).
"The History Of The Zipser Germans In Central Europe"
.
The Dockyards
. Retrieved
19 February
2023
.
- ^
"Alliance of Transylvanian Saxons"
.
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. Case Western Reserve University. 11 May 2018
. Retrieved
22 February
2023
.
- ^
Magazin Istoric (5 September 2013).
"Sa?ii ? Saxonii Transilvaniei"
.
Politeia
(in Romanian).
- ^
Prof. Jan de Maere: Flandrenses, Milites et Hospites" A History of Transylvania (2013) Link:
[2]
- ^
Redac?ia publica?iei Turnul Sfatului (7 January 2015).
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.
Turnul Sfatului
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
17 January
2023
.
- ^
Encyclopedia Britannica.
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.
Britannica
. Retrieved
17 January
2023
.
- ^
"Table no. 8"
.
Recens?mant Romania
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
15 March
2021
.
- ^
Duncan B. Gardiner.
"German Settlements in Eastern Europe"
.
Foundation for East European Family Studies
. Retrieved
18 September
2022
.
- ^
"Ethnic German repatriates: Historical background"
.
Deutsches Rotes Kreuz
. 21 August 2020
. Retrieved
12 January
2023
.
- ^
Dr. Konrad Gundisch.
"Transylvania and the Transylvanian Saxons"
.
SibiWeb.de
. Retrieved
20 January
2023
.
- ^
Redac?ia Richi?.info (13 May 2015).
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.
Richi?.info
. Retrieved
17 January
2023
.
- ^
Dorin ?imonea (25 September 2015).
"Cine sunt sa?ii ?i cum au contribuit la dezvoltarea Transilvaniei. Cine le-a dat denumirea de sa?i coloni?tilor germani adu?i in Ardeal"
.
Adev?rul.ro
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
17 January
2023
.
- ^
McGrath, Stephen (10 September 2019).
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.
BBC
. Retrieved
21 October
2019
.
- ^
"Transylvania and the Transylvanian Saxons"
.
Siebenburgisches Kulturzentrum Schloss Horneck E.V
. Retrieved
17 January
2023
.
- ^
Maiterth, Konrad Andreas (1910).
Chronik der Familie Medard (Maiterth) zu Nimesch
(in German).
- ^
K. Gundisch, "Autonomie de st?ri ?i regionalitate in Ardealul medieval, in Transilvania ?i sa?ii ardeleni" in
istoriografie, Asocia?ia de Studii Transilvane, Sibiu
, Heidelberg, 2001, pp. 33?53.
- ^
Sautter, Ursula (27 April 1998). "Fairy Tale Ending".
Time International
. p. 58.
- ^
Karacs, Imre (27 January 1998).
"Twist in the tale of Pied Piper's kidnapping"
.
The Independent
. London.
Archived
from the original on 26 May 2022.
- ^
Mieder, Wolfgang (2007).
The Pied Piper: A Handbook
. Greenwood Press. p. 67.
ISBN
978-0-313-33464-1
.
- ^
Mihai Eminescu Trust (1 August 2016).
"Alma Vii, Transylvania ? The Transylvanian Saxons"
.
Centrul de interpretare a culturii tradi?ionale Alma Vii ? Reabilitarea ?i refunc?ionalizarea incintei fortificate
(in Romanian). Youtube via Mihai Eminescu Trust foundation's official Youtube channel
. Retrieved
20 January
2023
.
- ^
Keul, Istvan (2009).
Early Modern Religious Communities in East-Central Europe: Ethnic Diversity, Denominational Plurality, and Corporative Politics in the Principality of Transylvania (1526?1691)
.
Brill
. p. 86.
ISBN
978-90-04-17652-2
.
- ^
Stefan (Hg.) Bichler, Stefan Cosoroaba (2018).
"Kirchenburgen und mittelalterliche Kirchen in Siebenburgen Landkarte"
.
Erasmus Buchercafe
(in German)
. Retrieved
20 January
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.
- ^
Villages with Fortified Churches in Transylvania.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre 1992?2010
- ^
Horst Klusch (2008).
"Septem castra ? Siebenburgen"
.
Forschungen zur Volks- und Landeskunde
. Editura Academiei Romane
. Retrieved
4 March
2023
.
- ^
"Transylvanian-Saxons: a very brief introduction on their history"
.
Nature Guide, Romanian Wildlife Experience
. 15 April 2018
. Retrieved
27 September
2022
.
- ^
Traian Deleanu (25 April 2017).
"Sa?ii sibieni care de?in recordul la atragerea de fonduri europene"
.
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(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
18 January
2023
.
- ^
AGERPRES (originally) (21 April 2015).
"Romanii, in Transilvania, pe urmele Prin?ului Charles; str?inii, pe urmele tradi?iilor pierdute"
.
Curierul de Ramnic
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
18 January
2023
.
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Redac?ia ?tirilor PRO TV (15 April 2018).
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.
PRO TV
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
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2023
.
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Nypan Terje (January 2006).
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(PDF)
.
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.
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.
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. Brill.
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(PDF)
. Retrieved
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.
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Johann Schiltberger
.
Hans Schiltbergers Reisebuch
Tubingen, Litterarischer Verein in Stuttgart, 1885, p. 111
- ^
"Germanii"
.
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(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
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.
[
permanent dead link
]
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Lauren?iu R?dvan (28 January 2010).
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. Brill.
ISBN
9789047444602
. Retrieved
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2022
.
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"Scurt istoric"
.
Turism Siret
(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
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.
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"Scurt istoric"
.
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(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
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.
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Paul Milata: Zwischen Hitler, Stalin and Antonescu. Rumaniendeutsche in der Waffen-SS, Bohlau Verlag Koln, Weimar, Wien 2007,
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978-3-412-13806-6
, p. 262
- ^
Jan Erich Schulte, Michael Wildt (Hg.), Die SS nach 1945: Entschuldungsnarrative, populare Mythen, europaische Erinnerungsdiskurse
, V&R unipress, Gottingen, 2018, p.384-385
- ^
Paul Milata, Motive rumaniendeutscher Freiwilliger zum Eintritt in die Waffen-SS in Die Waffen-SS, Neue Forschungen, Series; Krieg in der Geschichte
, Volume: 74,
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9783657773831
, Verlag Ferdinand Schoningh, 2014, pp. 216?217
- ^
Paul Milata: Zwischen Hitler, Stalin and Antonescu. Rumaniendeutsche in der Waffen-SS, Bohlau Verlag Koln, Weimar, Wien 2007,
ISBN
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"SZABO M. ATTILA ? Betekintes az erdelyi szaszok autonomiajaba"
(PDF)
(in Hungarian).
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Buc?t?ra? Diana (10 March 2019).
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.
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(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
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Laura Lauren?iu (19 October 2016).
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.
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(in Romanian)
. Retrieved
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Historical
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