River in Scotland
This article is about the river which flows through Glasgow. For other uses, see
Clyde River
. For the ship, see
SS River Clyde
.
River Clyde
|
---|
The River Clyde running through the city of Glasgow
|
|
Country
| Scotland
|
---|
Council areas
| South Lanarkshire
,
North Lanarkshire
,
Glasgow
,
Renfrewshire
,
West Dunbartonshire
,
Inverclyde
,
Argyll and Bute
|
---|
City
| Glasgow
|
---|
|
|
Source
| Lowther Hills
in
South Lanarkshire
|
---|
• location
| South Lanarkshire
, Scotland
|
---|
• coordinates
| 55°24′23.8″N
3°39′8.9″W
/
55.406611°N 3.652472°W
/
55.406611; -3.652472
|
---|
|
Mouth
| Firth of Clyde
|
---|
• location
| Inverclyde
,
Argyll
, Scotland
|
---|
• coordinates
| 55°40′46.3″N
4°58′16.7″W
/
55.679528°N 4.971306°W
/
55.679528; -4.971306
|
---|
Length
| 110 mi (180 km)
[1]
|
---|
Basin size
| 1,545 sq mi (4,000 km
2
)
|
---|
|
Designation
| |
---|
|
Official name
| Inner Clyde Estuary
|
---|
Designated
| 5 September 2000
|
---|
Reference no.
| 1036
[2]
|
---|
|
---|
|
The
River Clyde
(
Scottish Gaelic
:
Abhainn Chluaidh
,
pronounced
[?av??
?xl??u?j]
,
Scots
:
Clyde Watter
, or
Watter o Clyde
) is a river that flows into the
Firth of Clyde
in Scotland. It is the ninth-longest river in the United Kingdom, and the second or third longest in Scotland (
River Spey
is of very similar length). It runs through the major city of
Glasgow
. Historically, it was important to the
British Empire
because of its role in
shipbuilding
and trade. To the
Romans
, it was
Clota
,
[3]
and in the early medieval
Cumbric language
, it was known as
Clud
or
Clut
. It was central to the
Kingdom of Strathclyde
(
Teyrnas Ystrad Clut
).
Etymology
[
edit
]
The exact etymology of the river's name is unclear, though it is known that the name is ancient. In 50AD, the Egyptian mathematician, astronomer and geographer
Claudius Ptolemy
wrote of the river as "Kl?ta",
[4]
It was called
Clut
or
Clud
by the
Britons
and
Clota
by the Romans. It is therefore likely that the name comes from a Celtic language?most likely
Old British
. But there is more than one old Celtic word that the river's name could plausibly derive from. One possible root is the
Common Brittonic
Clywwd
, meaning 'loud' or 'loudly'.
[
citation needed
]
More likely, the river was named after a local Celtic goddess,
Cl?ta
. The goddess's name in turn derives from an older,
Proto-Celtic
word meaning 'the strongly flowing one' or 'the holy cleanser'.
History
[
edit
]
Prehistory
[
edit
]
Humans have settled along the Clyde since the
Paleolithic
era. Artifacts dating from 12,000 BC have been found near
Biggar
, a rural town close to the river. Biggar is home to an archeological site at which Britain's most ancient artifacts have been unearthed.
[5]
Prehistoric
canoes
, used by ancient peoples for transport or trade, have been found in the river.
[6]
There are a number of
Mesolithic
sites along the Clyde, especially in the Upper Clyde Valley.
[7]
Permanent settlements and structures, including what is believed to be a temple to
moon gods
in
Govan
, were constructed in the area during the
Neolithic
and
Bronze Ages
.
Celtic
art, language, and other aspects of culture began spreading to the area from the south during this period, and prehistoric artifacts suggest that, by around 1000 BCE, they had become the dominant cultural influences there.
Ancient history
[
edit
]
Before the
legions
of the
Roman Empire
arrived in southern Scotland, the river and the area surrounding it had been settled by the Brythonic-speaking
Damnonii
tribe. It has been suggested that a Damnonii town called
Cathures
was located there and was the precursor to modern Glasgow.
[8]
The Damnonii tribe originally distributed power among individual chiefdoms, but at some point before 500 AD the tribe politically unified and formed a centralised
kingdom
known as
Strathclyde
.
None of the documentary or archaeological evidence from the period when the Roman legions arrived suggests that battles took place in the area. Therefore the Roman legions and Damnonii tribespeople are assumed to have been on good terms and to have co-operated by means of trade and the exchange of military information. The Romans did, however, construct several
forts
(
castra
) in the area, notably on the banks of the Clyde. These include Castledykes,
Bothwellhaugh
, and
Old Kilpatrick
and
Bishopton
. The Romans also constructed several roads along the river, both small ones and larger ones designed to be used as trade routes and to carry entire legions. The
Antonine Wall
, which lies only a few miles from the river, was constructed later by the Romans as a means of defending the area against invasion by the
Picts
. Despite the strategic location and flat terrain of Glasgow and the surrounding Clyde basin, no Roman civilian settlement was ever constructed. Instead, the region mostly functioned as a frontier zone between the Roman province known as
Britannia Inferior
and the
Caledonians
, an indigenous group that was hostile to the Romans.
Kingdom of Strathclyde
[
edit
]
Strathclyde was founded as an independent British kingdom, either during or shortly after the
Roman occupation of Britain
. The kingdom's core territory and much of its arable land was located around the Clyde basin. The kingdom was ruled from its capital, the near impenetrable
Alt Clut fortress
(Dumbarton Rock), which was situated on the river and overlooked much of the estuary. This fortress was noteworthy enough to have been referred to at the time in several letters and poems about
Sub-Roman Britain
, written by
Gildas
and others. Strathclyde remained a powerful kingdom during the early medieval period in Britain. It was also a reservoir of native
Welsh culture
: Its territory eventually expanded along the Clyde Vae Southern Uplands and Ayrshire, and southward into Cumbria.
In the
7th century
,
Saint Mungo
established a new Christian community on the banks of the Clyde, replacing Cathures. This community was the beginnings of what would become the city of Glasgow. Several villages on the Clyde that were founded then have endured to this day, and grown to become towns, including
Llanerc
(
Lanark
),
Cadzow
(
Hamilton
), and
Rhynfrwd
(
Renfrew
). The fortress of Altclut fell in the
Siege of Dumbarton
of 870 AD, when a force of
Norse-Irish
raiders from the
Kingdom of Dublin
sacked it. After that, the kingdom, now politically weakened, moved its capital to
Govan
. However, it never fully recovered, and in the
11th century
it was annexed by the
Kingdom of Alba
Medieval and early modern history
[
edit
]
In the 13th century, Glasgow, then still a small town, built its first bridge over the river Clyde. This was an important step in its ability to eventually grow into a city. The establishment, in the 15th century, of both the
University of Glasgow
and the
Archdiocese of Glasgow
, vastly increased the importance of the town within Scotland. From the
early modern period
onwards, the Clyde began to be used commercially as a trade route; trade between Glasgow and the rest of Europe became commonplace. In the centuries that followed, the Clyde became increasingly vital to both Scotland and Britain as a major trade route for exporting and importing resources.
Course
[
edit
]
The Clyde is formed by the confluence of two streams, the
Daer Water
(the headwaters of which are dammed to form the
Daer Reservoir
) and the Potrail Water. The
Southern Upland Way
crosses both streams before they meet at Watermeetings (
grid reference
NS953131
) to form the River Clyde proper. At this point, the Clyde is only 10 km (6 mi) from Tweed's Well, the source of the
River Tweed
, and is about the same distance from
Annanhead Hill
, the source of the
River Annan
.
[9]
From there, it meanders northeastward before turning to the west, where its
flood plain
serve as the site of many major roads in the area, then reaches the town of
Lanark
, where the late 17th- and early 18th-century industrialists
David Dale
and
Robert Owen
built mills and the model settlement of
New Lanark
on the banks of the Clyde. The mills harnessed the power of the
Falls of Clyde
, the most spectacular of which is Cora Linn. A
hydroelectric
power station still generates 11MW of electricity there today, although the mills have now become a museum and
World Heritage Site
.
Tributaries of the River Clyde
The river then makes its way northwest, past the towns of
Wishaw
to the east of it and
Larkhall
to the west of it. The river's surroundings here become increasingly suburban. Between the towns of
Motherwell
and
Hamilton
, the course of the river has been altered to create an artificial loch within
Strathclyde Park
. Part of the original course can still be seen: It lies between the island and the eastern shore of the loch. The river then flows through
Blantyre
and
Bothwell
, where the ruined
Bothwell Castle
stands on a defensible
promontory
.
As it flows past
Uddingston
and into the southeastern part of Glasgow, the river begins to widen, meandering through
Cambuslang
,
Rutherglen
, and
Dalmarnock
, and past
Glasgow Green
. From the
Tidal Weir
westwards, the river is
tidal
: a mix of fresh and salt water.
[10]
Over three centuries the river has been engineered and widened where it passes through
Glasgow
city centre and onwards towards
Dumbarton
and
Greenock
and the open sea. Shipping and shipbuilding grow in Glasgow and its neighbouring industrial burghs of
Govan
and
Partick
; with the Clyde, including is lower reaches, becoming the centre of world shipbuilding.
The river then flows west, out of Glasgow, past
Renfrew
, under the
Erskine Bridge
, and past
Dumbarton
on the northern shore and the sandbank at Ardmore Point between
Cardross
and
Helensburgh
. Opposite, on the southern shore, is the last remaining Lower Clyde shipyard, at
Port Glasgow
. The river continues on to
Greenock
, where it reaches the
Tail of the Bank
as the river merges into the
Firth of Clyde
. Here at the mouth of the Clyde, there is currently a significant ecological problem of oxygen depletion in the water column.
[11]
The
strath
of the Clyde was the focus for the G-BASE project executed by the British Geological Survey in the summer of 2010.
Industrial growth
[
edit
]
The economic prosperity that the Clyde made possible at the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution
was due to the location of Glasgow, as a port facing the Americas. Tobacco and cotton trade began to drive this economic engine in the early 18th century. However, an obstacle to further economic growth soon became evident: the Clyde was too shallow for the largest ocean-going ships to navigate into it, so cargo had to be transferred, at
Greenock
or
Port Glasgow
, to smaller ships that could sail upstream into Glasgow itself.
Deepening the Upper Clyde
[
edit
]
In 1768,
John Golborne
advised that the river should be made narrower and the
scour
increased by constructing rubble jetties and dredging sandbanks and
shoals
. Another obstacle to navigation that had to be solved was that the river divided into two shallow channels by the
Dumbuck
shoal near
Dumbarton
. After
James Watt
's 1769 report describing this problem, a jetty was constructed at
Longhaugh Point
to block off the southern channel. This turned out to be insufficient to solve the problem, so in 1773, a training wall called the
Lang Dyke
was built on the Dumbuck shoal to stop water flowing over into the southern channel of the river.
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, hundreds of jetties were built out from the banks of the river between Dumbuck and the
Broomielaw
quay in Glasgow proper. In some cases, this construction had the effect of deepening the river, because the increased flow of the newly constrained water wore away the river bottom. In other cases,
dredging
was required to deepen the river.
[12]
[13]
[14]
In the mid-19th century, engineers took on the task of dredging the Clyde much more extensively. They removed millions of cubic feet of
silt
to deepen and widen the channel. The major stumbling block encountered by that project was a massive
geological intrusion
known as
Elderslie Rock
.
[15]
Because that rock increased the project's difficulty, the work was not completed until the 1880s. Around this time, the Clyde became an important source of inspiration for artists, such as
John Atkinson Grimshaw
and
James Kay
,
[16]
who were interested in painting scenes that depicted the new industrial era and the modern world.
Shipbuilding and marine engineering
[
edit
]
The completion of the dredging was well-timed, because the channel finally became navigable all the way from Greenock to Glasgow just when the steelwork industry had begun to grow in the city. Shipbuilding replaced trade as the major activity on the river, and shipbuilding companies started rapidly establishing themselves there. The Clyde soon gained a reputation for being the best location for shipbuilding in the
British Empire
, and grew to become the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre. The term
Clydebuilt
became an industry symbol of high quality, and the river's shipyards were given contracts to build prestigious ocean-going liners, as well as warships. The
Queen Mary
and, in later years, the
Queen Elizabeth 2
were built in the town of
Clydebank
.
Between 1712, when the
Scott family's
shipyard was built at Greenock, and the present day, over 25,000 ships have been built on the River Clyde, its firth, and its
tributaries
, the
River Kelvin
and the
River Cart
, by many boatyards, including those at
Maryhill
and
Kirkintilloch
on the
Forth & Clyde Canal
, and
Blackhill
on the
Monkland Canal
. Over the same time period, it is estimated that more than 300 firms have engaged in shipbuilding on Clydeside, although probably at most 30 to 40 firms were operating at any given time.
The shipbuilding firms became household names on Clydeside, and even around the world to some extent. These included, among many others,
John Brown & Company
of Clydebank,
Denny
of Dumbarton, Scott of Greenock,
Lithgows
of Port Glasgow, Simon and
Lobnitz
of Renfrew,
Alexander Stephen & Sons
of Linthouse,
Fairfield
of Govan,
Inglis
of Pointhouse,
Barclay Curle
of Whiteinch,
Connell
and
Yarrow
of Scotstoun. Almost as famous were the engineering firms that supplied the machinery needed to drive these vessels, including the boilers, pumps, and steering gear, including
Rankin & Blackmore
, Hastie's and
Kincaid
's of Greenock, Rowan's of Finnieston,
Weir's
of Cathcart, Howden's of Tradeston, and
Babcock & Wilcox
of Renfrew.
One shipyard that was known as a 'Clyde' shipyard was not actually located on any of the Clyde's waterways:
Alley & MacLellan
's Sentinel Works in Jessie Street at
Polmadie
is around half a mile distant from the Clyde. It is said to have constructed over 500 vessels, many of which were assembled and then 'knocked down' to kit form for despatch to a remote location, such as
Chauncy Maples
. Clyde shipbuilding reached its peak in the years just before World War I: It is estimated that, in the year 1913 alone, over 370 ships were completed.
Yachting and yachtbuilding
[
edit
]
The first recorded Clyde racing yacht, a 46-ton cutter, was built by
Scotts
of Greenock in 1803.
[17]
The pre-eminent Scottish yacht designer William Fyfe did not start designing yachts until 1807. The first yacht club on the Clyde was the
Northern Yacht Club
, which was established in 1824 and received its
royal charter
in 1831. The club was founded to organise and encourage the sport of yacht racing. By 1825, Scottish and Irish clubs were racing against each other on the Clyde. By the mid-19th century, yachting and yacht building had become widely popular.
The Clyde became famous worldwide for its significant contribution to yachting and yachtbuilding, and was the home of many notable designers:
William Fife III
,
Alfred Mylne
,
G. L. Watson
, E. McGruer, and David Boyd. It was also home to many famous yacht yards.
Robertson's Yard
started repairing boats in a small workshop at Sandbank in 1876, and went on to become one of the foremost wooden boat builders on the Clyde. The 'golden years' of Robertson's yard were in the early 20th century, when they started building classic 12-and-15-metre (39 and 49 ft) racing yachts. More than 55 boats were built by Robertson's in preparation for World War I, and the yard remained busy even during the Great Depression in the 1930s, as many wealthy businessmen developed a passion for yacht racing on the Clyde. During World War II, the yard was devoted to Admiralty work, producing large, high-speed
Fairmile Marine
motor boats (motor torpedo boats and motor gun boats). After the war, the yard built the successful one-class Loch Longs and two 12 m (39 ft) challengers for the
America's Cup
, designed by David Boyd:
Sceptre
(1958)
[18]
and
Sovereign
(1964). Because of difficult business conditions in 1965, the yard turned to doing GRP production work (mainly building Pipers and Etchells), and it closed in 1980. During its 104-year history, Robertson's Yard built 500 boats, many of which are still sailing today.
Two other notable boatyards on the Clyde were Silvers, which operated from 1910 to 1970, and McGruers, which operated from 1910 to 1973. They were situated on the
Rosneath peninsula
on the banks of the
Gare Loch
, within half a mile of each other. McGruers built over 700 boats. Both yards built many widely-known and classic yachts, some of which are still sailing today.
[19]
[20]
[21]
Glasgow Humane Society
[
edit
]
The
Glasgow Humane Society
is responsible for the safety and preservation of life on Glasgow's waterways. Founded in 1790, it is the oldest lifesaving organisation in the world.
Shipbuilding decline
[
edit
]
During and immediately after
World War II
, the Clyde's importance as a major industrial centre rapidly declined. During the war, the
Luftwaffe
singled out
Clydebank for bombing
, and its buildings sustained heavy damage. In the immediate postwar period, the sharp reduction in warship orders was initially balanced by a prolonged boom in merchant shipbuilding. But by the end of the 1950s, other countries had begun to establish well-capitalised and highly productive shipbuilding centres that were able to outcompete many of the European shipbuilding yards. Several Clydeside yards booked a series of loss-making contracts in the hope of weathering the storm, but their unprofitable circumstances continued for too long, and by the mid-1960s they faced potential collapse.
[22]
Harland and Wolff
's Linthouse yard went under, and Fairfields of Govan faced bankruptcy. The government tried to limit the decline by creating the
Upper Clyde Shipbuilders
consortium, but the consortium became mired in controversy and collapsed in 1971. After that,
James Callaghan
's Labour government implemented the
Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act
, which nationalised most of the Clyde's shipyards and grouped them with other major British shipyards, such as the firm
British Shipbuilders
.
Today, two major shipyards on the Upper Clyde remain in operation. They are both owned by a naval defence contractor,
BAE Systems Surface Ships
, which specialises in the design and construction of technologically advanced warships for the Royal Navy and other navies around the world. The two yards are the former
Yarrow
yard at
Scotstoun
, and
Fairfields
at Govan. In addition, the
King George V Dock
is operated by the
Clyde Port Authority
.
Ferguson Shipbuilders
, at Port Glasgow on the Lower Clyde, is now owned by the Scottish government. It is the last survivor of the many shipyards that once dominated Port Glasgow and Greenock. Its core business is now the construction of
car ferries
.
Regeneration
[
edit
]
Major regeneration schemes include those in the 1970s of forming
Strathclyde Country Park
, lying between Hamilton and Motherwell, as part of motorway developments; the establishment of the Glasgow Garden Festival 1988 as part of the re-use of city docklands and associated industrial uses led by the Scottish Development Agency in the 1980s and early 90s.
The
Clyde Waterfront Regeneration
project from 2008 aims to continue this approach of finding new uses and attracting new investment, from Glasgow Green to Dumbarton.
[23]
Residents and tourists come back to the riverside, especially in Glasgow, where vast former docklands have given way to housing and amenities on the banks in the city. Examples of public amenities and attractions include the
Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre
, the
Glasgow Science Centre
, and the
Riverside Museum
. Merchant shipping has largely moved west, closer to deeper water at Greenock, and 20 miles beyond that, south, to Hunterston. The river's water is increasingly used for recreation now that industrial uses have diminished.
The
Clyde Walkway
, originating at Glasgow's Custom House Quay in the 1970s, and completed eastward in 2005, is a foot-and mountain-bike path that follows the course of the Clyde between Glasgow and
New Lanark
.
Scottish Natural Heritage
has designated it one of
Scotland's Great Trails
.
[24]
Pollution
[
edit
]
The British Geological Survey has identified and evaluated organic chemical pollutants in the sediment of the Clyde estuary.
[25]
[26]
[27]
Surface sediments from the Glasgow reaches of the Clyde and
Cuningar
to
Milton
, were previously found to contain
polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH) from 630 μg/kg to 23,711 μg/kg and
polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB) in the range of 5 to 130.5 μg/kg, which puts these sediments in the range classified as "non-toxic."
[25]
However, a later study showed PCB concentrations as high as 5,797 μg/kg, which is above published threshold levels for such chlorinated compounds.
[26]
A comparison between individual PAH compounds that have different thermal stabilities shows that the source of PAH pollution in the Clyde is different in different parts of the river. PAH in the inner Clyde (Cuningar to Milton) are from combustion sources (vehicle exhaust, coal burning), whereas PAH in the outer Clyde are from petroleum spills.
[25]
[26]
The amount and type of sedimentary pollution in the Clyde reflects the area's industrial history.
[26]
In order to assess how the nature of the pollutants has changed over time, from 1750 to 2002, seven sediment cores of one metre's depth were collected, and dated using lead concentrations and changing lead isotope ratios. The sediments showed a long but declining history of coal usage and, beginning around the 1950s, an increasing reliance on petroleum fuels. The decline of hydrocarbon pollution was followed by the appearance of PCB concentrations in the 1950s. Total PCB concentration levels peaked in the period 1965 to 1977, and declined beginning in the 1990s.
[26]
The
Polmadie
Burn
, which flows into the Clyde at
Richmond Park
, remains heavily contaminated by
hexavalent chromium
, to the extent it turned bright green in 2019,
[28]
and yellow in 2021.
[29]
Although pollution from heavy industry and power generation has been decreasing, there is evidence that human-made pollution from new synthetic compounds in electrical products and textiles has been increasing.
[27]
The amounts of 16
polybrominated diphenyl ether
(PBDE) compounds used as flame retardants in televisions, computers, and furniture upholstery were measured in sediment cores collected from six sites between Princes Dock and Greenock. Comparison of the amounts of PBDE compounds revealed a decline in certain compounds, in line with the European ban on production of mixtures containing environmentally harmful PBDE with eight and nine
bromine
atoms. At the same time, there was an increase in the amounts of the less harmful mixture, composed of ten bromine atoms.
[27]
Media
[
edit
]
The Clyde plays an important role in the
Para Handy
novels of
Neil Munro
, and subsequent adaptations. It also features in novels by
Alasdair Gray
,
Matthew Fitt
, and
Robin Jenkins
. It is mentioned in the "
Ossian
" poetry of
James Macpherson
, as well as the works of
John Wilson
,
William McGonagall
,
Edwin Morgan
,
Norman McCaig
,
Douglas Dunn
and
W.S. Graham
. It also features in the work of many visual artists, including
William McTaggart
,
J. M. W. Turner
,
Robert Salmon
, and
George Wyllie
.
The Clyde appears prominently in the films
Young Adam
,
Sweet Sixteen
,
Just a Boys' Game
, and
Down Where the Buffalo Go
, and was the subject of the
Academy Award
-winning film documentary
Seawards the Great Ships
. It is referenced in the traditional folk songs "
Clyde's Water
" and "
Black Is the Color (of My True Love's Hair)
", as well as "
Song of the Clyde
", which was popularised by
Kenneth McKellar
. It is also the subject of longing in Mark Knopfler's "
So Far From The Clyde
"
-
Bells Bridge
-
Millennium Bridge
-
Modern buildings, including the
Clyde Auditorium
,
Finnieston Crane
,
Crowne Plaza
Hotel and the
SSE Hydro
-
The estuary opens out past
Dumbarton
.
-
Looking across to Dumbarton at low tide
-
Looking east toward Glasgow's CBD
-
South-facing view of the
Tradeston bridge
-
Aerial view looking downstream along the River Clyde to the Erskine Bridge, the Firth of Clyde and the Argyll hills
Heat Pumps
[
edit
]
The River Clyde, or more accurately the Clyde Estuary, has significant potential as a heat source. The flow rate downstream alone is around 50 m
3
/s.
[30]
Reducing this temperature by 3 °C would enable river heat pumps to extract 188.1 MW of heat. Since river heat pumps typically have an efficiency of 3.0, the heat deliverable is 1.5 times the river component. As a result, the estuary could deliver 282 MW of heat. The temperature of industrial heat pump delivery is typically 80 °C.
[
citation needed
]
In 2020, West Dunbartonshire Council deployed a
river source heat pump
scheme in the area called Queens Quay. It is the first large heat pump scheme in Britain to deliver at 80 °C. The heat pumps were supplied by Star Refrigeration Ltd, who manufactured them in their Glasgow factory. The project was delivered by Vital Energi.
See also
[
edit
]
References
[
edit
]
- ^
"River Clyde"
.
Encyclopaedia Britannica
. Retrieved
30 May
2019
.
- ^
"Inner Clyde Estuary"
.
Ramsar
Sites Information Service
. Retrieved
25 April
2018
.
- ^
"TM Places"
.
www.trismegistos.org
.
- ^
McClure, Edmund (1910).
British Place-names in Their Historical Setting
. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 92.
- ^
"Scotland's oldest home found at 14,000 years old"
.
The Scotsman
.
- ^
"The Glasgow Story"
. 21 December 2020.
- ^
"Vol 14 (2005): People and their monuments in the Upper Clyde Valley:a programme of survey, field walking and trial excavation in the environs of the Blackshouse Burn Neolithic enclosure, South Lanarkshire, 1989--99 | Scottish Archaeological Internet Reports"
.
journals.socantscot.org
. Retrieved
28 July
2021
.
- ^
"The British Damnonii Tribe"
. 22 December 2020.
- ^
The Tweed: Take a trip on a river flowing with history
, The Independent, 21 April 2007
- ^
"Tidal Weir"
. Glasgow City Council. 2017
. Retrieved
9 August
2020
.
- ^
C.Michael Hogan. 2011.
Irish Sea
. eds. P.Saundry & C.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
- ^
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911).
"Glasgow"
.
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 84.
- ^
Riddell, John F (1999). "Improving the Clyde: the eighteenth century phase". In Goodman, David (ed.).
The European Cities and Technology Reader
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Further reading
[
edit
]
- Millar, William John.
The Clyde: from its source to the sea, its development as a navigable river....
(1888)
[1]
- Shields, John.
Clyde built: a history of ship-building on the River Clyde
(1949)
- Walker, Fred M.
Song of the Clyde: a history of Clyde shipbuilding
(1984), 233 pages
- Williamson, James.
The Clyde passenger steamer
(1904)
full text
External links
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edit
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