1934 novel by F. Scott Fitzgerald
Tender Is the Night
is the fourth and final
novel
completed by American writer
F. Scott Fitzgerald
. Set in
French Riviera
during the twilight of the
Jazz Age
, the 1934 novel chronicles the rise and fall of Dick Diver, a promising young
psychiatrist
, and his wife, Nicole, who is one of his patients. The story mirrors events in the lives of the author and his wife
Zelda Fitzgerald
as Dick starts his descent into
alcoholism
and Nicole struggles with
mental illness
.
Fitzgerald began the novel in 1925 after the publication of his third novel
The Great Gatsby
.
During the protracted writing process, the mental health of his wife rapidly deteriorated,
and she required extended hospitalization due to her suicidal and homicidal tendencies.
After her hospitalization in
Baltimore
,
Maryland
, the author rented the
La Paix
estate in the suburb of
Towson
to be close to his wife, and he continued working on the manuscript.
While working on the book, Fitzgerald was beset with financial difficulties and drank heavily. He kept afloat by borrowing money from both his editor
Max Perkins
and his agent
Harold Ober
, as well as writing short stories for commercial magazines. Fitzgerald completed the work in fall 1933, and
Scribner's Magazine
serialized the novel in four installments between January and April 1934 before its publication on April 12, 1934.
Although artist
Edward Shenton
illustrated the serialization, he did not design the book's jacket.
The jacket was by an unknown artist, and Fitzgerald disliked it.
The title is taken from the poem "
Ode to a Nightingale
" by
John Keats
.
Two versions of the novel are in print.
The first version, published in 1934, uses flashbacks; the second, revised version, prepared by Fitzgerald's friend and critic
Malcolm Cowley
on the basis of notes for a revision left by Fitzgerald, is ordered chronologically and was first published posthumously in 1948.
Critics have suggested that Cowley's revision was undertaken due to negative reviews of the temporal structure of the first version of the book.
Fitzgerald considered the novel to be his
masterwork
.
Although it received a tepid response upon release, it has grown in acclaim over the years and is now regarded as among Fitzgerald's best works.
In 1998, the
Modern Library
ranked the novel 28th on its list of the
100 best English-language novels of the 20th century
.
Plot summary
[
edit
]
Dick and Nicole Diver are a glamorous couple who rent a villa in the
South of France
and surround themselves with a coterie of American
expatriates
. Rosemary Hoyt, a 17-year-old actress, and her mother are staying at a nearby resort. Rosemary becomes infatuated with Dick and becomes close to Nicole.
Rosemary senses something is wrong with the couple, and her suspicions are confirmed when another guest at a party, Violet McKisco, reports witnessing Nicole's
nervous breakdown
in a bathroom. Tommy Barban, another guest, comes to the defense of Nicole and insists that Violet is lying. Angered by this accusation, Violet's husband Albert duels Barban on the beach, but both men miss their shots. Following these events, Dick, Nicole, Rosemary, and others depart the French Riviera.
Soon after, Rosemary is now a constant companion of both Dick and Nicole in Paris. She attempts to seduce Dick in her hotel room, but he rebuffs her advances, although he admits that he loves her. Much later, a black man named Jules Peterson is found murdered in Rosemary's bed at the hotel, a potential scandal which could destroy Rosemary's career. Dick moves the blood-soaked body out of the room to cover up any implied
sexual relationship
between Rosemary and Peterson.
A
flashback
occurs in the narrative. In Spring 1917, Dick Diver?a promising young doctor?visits
psychopathologist
Franz Gregorovius in
Zurich, Switzerland
. While visiting Franz, he meets a patient named Nicole Warren, a wealthy young woman whose
sexual abuse
by her father has led to
mental neuroses
.
[c]
Over a period of time they exchange letters. With the permission of Franz who believes that Dick's friendship benefits Nicole's well-being, they start seeing each other. As Nicole's treatment progresses, she becomes infatuated with Dick who, in turn, develops
Florence Nightingale syndrome
. He determines to marry Nicole in order to provide her with lasting emotional stability.
Don't you worry I surrender
Days are long and life's a bender
Still I know that
Tender is the Night.
?F. Scott Fitzgerald
Dick is offered a partnership in a Swiss psychiatric clinic by Franz, and Nicole uses her finances to pay for the enterprise. After his father's death, Dick travels to America for the burial and then journeys to Rome in hopes of seeing Rosemary. They start a brief affair which ends abruptly and painfully. A heartbroken Dick is involved in an altercation with the Italian police and is physically beaten. Nicole's sister helps him to get out of jail. After this public humiliation, his incipient alcoholism increases. When his alcoholism threatens his medical practice, Dick's ownership share of the clinic is purchased by American investors following Franz's suggestion.
Dick and Nicole's marriage disintegrates as he pines for Rosemary who has become a successful Hollywood star. Nicole distances herself from Dick as his self-confidence and friendliness turn into sarcasm and rudeness towards everyone. His constant unhappiness over what he could have been fuels his alcoholism, and Dick becomes embarrassing in social and familial situations. A lonely Nicole enters into an affair with Tommy Barban.
[d]
She later divorces Dick and marries her lover.
Major characters
[
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]
- Richard "Dick" Diver
– a promising young psychiatrist and
Yale alumnus
who marries his patient Nicole Diver and becomes an alcoholic.
- Nicole Diver (nee Warren)
– an affluent mental patient who was the victim of
incest
[c]
and who marries Dick Diver.
Based on
Zelda Fitzgerald
.
- Rosemary Hoyt
– an eighteen-year-old Hollywood actress who falls in love with Dick Diver.
Based on teenage starlet
Lois Moran
.
- Tommy Barban
– a
Franco-American
soldier-of-fortune
with whom Nicole Diver has an affair.
[d]
Based on French aviator Edouard Jozan, and on Italian-American pianist composer
Mario Braggiotti
.
[22]
- Franz Gregorovious
– a Swiss
psychopathologist
at Dohmler's clinic who introduces a young Dick Diver to Nicole Warren, his patient.
- Beth "Baby" Warren
– an unmarried spinster who is Nicole's older sibling and who disapproves of her marriage to Dick Diver.
- Abe North
– an alcoholic
composer
who is later murdered in a New York
speakeasy
.
Based on
Ring Lardner
and
Charles MacArthur
.
- Mary North
– the spirited wife of Abe North who divorces him, remarries, and becomes the wealthy Countess of Minghetti.
- Albert McKisco
– an American
novelist
who wins a duel against Tommy Barban.
Based on novelist
Robert McAlmon
.
- Violet McKisco
– the gossipy spouse of Albert McKisco who discovers Nicole's insanity and attempts to malign her reputation.
- Jules Peterson
– a black man from
Scandinavia
who helps Abe North and is later found dead in Rosemary Hoyt's hotel suite.
Background and composition
[
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]
Sojourn in Europe
[
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]
While abroad in Europe, F. Scott Fitzgerald began writing his fourth novel almost three weeks after the publication of
The Great Gatsby
in April 1925.
He planned to tell the story of Francis Melarkey, a young Hollywood technician visiting the
French Riviera
with his domineering mother.
Francis falls in with a circle of charming American expatriates, emotionally disintegrates, and kills his mother.
Fitzgerald's tentative titles for the novel were "World's Fair," "Our Type" and "The Boy Who Killed His Mother."
The characters of the charming American expatriates were based on Fitzgerald's acquaintances
Gerald and Sara Murphy
and were named Seth and Dinah Piper.
Francis was intended to fall in love with Dinah, an event that would precipitate his disintegration.
Fitzgerald wrote five drafts of this earlier version of the novel in 1925 and 1926, but he was unable to finish it.
Nearly all of what he wrote made it into the finished work in altered form.
Francis's arrival on the Riviera with his mother, and his introduction to the world of the Pipers, was transposed into Rosemary Hoyt's arrival with her mother, and her introduction to the world of Dick and Nicole Diver. Characters created in this early version survived into the final novel, particularly Abe and Mary North (originally Grant) and the McKiscos.
Several incidents such as Rosemary's arrival and early scenes on the beach, her visit to the Riviera movie studio, and the dinner party at the Divers' villa all appeared in this original version, but with Francis in the role of the wide-eyed outsider that would later be filled by Rosemary.
Also, the sequence in which a drunken Dick is beaten by police in Rome was written in this first version as well and was based on a real incident that happened to Fitzgerald in Rome in 1924.
Return to America
[
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]
Actress
Lois Moran
, with whom Fitzgerald had a relationship, inspired the character of Rosemary Hoyt
After a certain point, Fitzgerald became stymied with the novel. He, Zelda, and their daughter Scottie returned to the United States in December 1926 after several years in Europe. Film producer
John W. Considine Jr.
invited Fitzgerald to
Hollywood
during its
golden age
to write a
flapper
comedy for
United Artists
.
He agreed and moved into a studio-owned bungalow with Zelda in January 1927.
In Hollywood, the Fitzgeralds attended parties where they danced the
black bottom
and mingled with film stars.
While attending a lavish party at the
Pickfair
estate, Fitzgerald met 17-year-old
Lois Moran
, a starlet who had gained widespread fame for her role in
Stella Dallas
(1925).
Desperate for intellectual conversation, Moran and Fitzgerald discussed literature and philosophy for hours while sitting on a staircase.
Fitzgerald was 31 years old and past his prime, but the smitten Moran regarded him as a sophisticated, handsome, and gifted writer.
[38]
Consequently, she pursued a relationship with him.
The starlet became a muse for the author, and he wrote her into a short story called "Magnetism", in which a young Hollywood film starlet causes a married writer to waver in his sexual devotion to his wife.
Fitzgerald later rewrote Rosemary Hoyt?one of the central characters in
Tender is the Night
?to mirror Moran.
Jealous of Fitzgerald's relationship with Moran, an irate Zelda set fire to her expensive clothing in a bathtub as a self-destructive act.
She disparaged the teenage Moran as "a breakfast food that many men identified with whatever they missed from life."
Fitzgerald's relations with Moran further exacerbated the Fitzgeralds' marital difficulties and, after merely two months in Hollywood, the unhappy couple departed for Delaware in March 1927.
Fitzgerald supported himself and his family in the late 1920s with his lucrative short-story output for
slick magazines
such as the
Saturday Evening Post
, but he was haunted by his inability to progress on the novel. Around 1929 he tried a new angle on the material, starting over with a shipboard story about a Hollywood director Lew Kelly and his wife Nicole as well as a young actress named Rosemary.
But Fitzgerald only completed two chapters of this version.
Zelda's mental illness
[
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]
The case of F. Scott Fitzgerald has become distressing. He is boozing in a wild manner and has become a nuisance. His wife, Zelda, who has been insane for years, is now confined at the Sheppard-Pratt Hospital, and he is living in Park Avenue with his little daughter, Scottie.
?
H. L. Mencken
, 1934 diary entry
By Spring 1929, the Fitzgeralds had returned to Europe when Zelda's mental health deteriorated.
During an automobile trip to Paris along the mountainous roads of the
Grande Corniche
, Zelda seized the car's steering wheel and tried to kill herself, her husband F. Scott Fitzgerald, and their 9-year-old daughter
Scottie
by driving over a cliff.
After this homicidal incident, Zelda sought psychiatric treatment, and doctors diagnosed her with
schizophrenia
in June 1930.
Zelda's biographer,
Nancy Milford
, quotes Dr. Oscar Forel's contemporary psychiatric diagnosis:
"The more I saw Zelda, the more I thought at the time [that] she is neither [suffering from] a pure
neurosis
nor a real
psychosis
?I considered her a constitutional, emotionally unbalanced
psychopath
?she may improve, [but] never completely recover."
Seeking a cure for her mental illness, the couple traveled to
Switzerland
where Zelda underwent further treatment at a clinic.
Zelda's ingravescent mental illness and the death of Fitzgerald's father in 1931 dispirited the author.
Devastated by these events, an alcoholic Fitzgerald settled in suburban
Baltimore
where he rented the
La Paix
estate from architect Bayard Turnbull.
He decided the novel's final plot would involve a young man of great potential who marries a mentally-ill woman and sinks into despair and alcoholism when their doomed marriage fails.
Final draft and publication
[
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]
Fitzgerald wrote the final version of
Tender Is the Night
in 1932 and 1933. He salvaged almost everything he had written for the earlier Melarkey draft of the novel,
as well as borrowed ideas and phrases from many short stories he had written in the years since completing
The Great Gatsby
. Ultimately, he poured everything he had into
Tender
?his feelings regarding his wasted talent and self-perceived professional failure; his animosity towards his parents;
[50]
his marriage to Zelda and her mental illness;
his infatuation with actress Lois Moran,
and Zelda's affair with the French aviator Edouard Jozan.
[d]
Fitzgerald finished the work in the autumn of 1933, and it was serialized in
Scribner's Magazine
over four parts from January to April 1934, leading up to its release on April 12, 1934.
Although
Edward Shenton
provided illustrations for the serialization, he wasn't responsible for the book's jacket design, which was done by an unknown artist and not favored by Fitzgerald.
The title of the novel was inspired by
John Keats
' poem "
Ode to a Nightingale
".
Critical reception
[
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]
Fitzgerald deemed the novel to be his masterwork and believed it would eclipse the acclaim of his previous works.
It was instead met with lukewarm sales and mixed reviews.
One book review in
The New York Times
by critic J. Donald Adams was particularly harsh:
"Bad news is best blurted out at once:
Tender Is the Night
is a disappointment. Though it displays Mr. Fitzgerald’s most engaging qualities, it makes his weaknesses appear ineradicable, for they are present in equal measure and in undiminished form.... His new book is clever and brilliantly surfaced, but it is not the work of a wise and mature novelist."
In contrast to the negative review in
The New York Times
, critic Burke Van Allen hailed the novel as a masterpiece in a April 1934 review in
The Brooklyn Daily Eagle
:
"Besides Mr. Fitzgerald, no American novelist... has written four novels without a bad one, with a constantly growing mastery of his equipment, and a regularly increasing sensitivity to the esthetic values in life. Scott Fitzgerald grows, and his literature was born imposing... The variation of mood with which he has four times accomplished... is extraordinary. The mood in
This Side of Paradise
was vindictive and rebellious; in
The Beautiful and Damned
sour and satirical; in
Gatsby
straightforward and tragic, inevitable, and in
Tender Is the Night
it is stained with a civilized and wounding brutality. It is necessary to say that I, the reviewer, have never used this severe word in print before: masterpiece."
Three months after its publication,
Tender Is the Night
had sold only 12,000 copies compared to
This Side of Paradise
which sold over 50,000 copies.
Despite a number of positive reviews, a consensus emerged that the novel's
Jazz Age
setting and subject matter were both outdated and uninteresting to readers.
The unexpected failure of the novel puzzled Fitzgerald for the remainder of his life.
Various hypotheses have arisen as to why the novel did not receive a warmer reception upon release. Fitzgerald's friend, author
Ernest Hemingway
, opined that critics had initially only been interested in dissecting its weaknesses, rather than giving due credit to its merits.
He argued that such overly harsh criticism stemmed from superficial readings of the material and Depression-era America's reaction to Fitzgerald's status as a symbol of Jazz Age excess.
In his later years, Hemingway re-read the work and remarked that, in retrospect, "
Tender Is the Night
gets better and better".
Posthumous reevaluation
[
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]
Following Fitzgerald's death in 1940,
Tender Is the Night
'
s critical reputation has steadily grown.
Later critics have described it as "an exquisitely crafted piece of fiction" and "one of the greatest American novels".
It is now widely regarded as among Fitzgerald's most accomplished works, with some agreeing with the author's assessment that it surpasses
The Great Gatsby
.
Several critics have interpreted the novel to be a
feminist
work and posited that the patriarchal attitudes of the reactionary 1930s underlay the critical dismissal.
They have noted the parallels between Dick Diver and
Jay Gatsby
, with many regarding the novel and particularly Diver's character, as Fitzgerald's most emotionally and psychologically complex work.
Christian Messenger argues that Fitzgerald's book hinges on the sustaining sentimental fragments: "On an aesthetic level, Fitzgerald's working through of sentiment's broken premises and rhetoric in
Tender
heralds a triumph of modernism in his attempt to sustain his sentimental fragments and allegiances in new forms."
He calls it "F. Scott Fitzgerald's richest novel, replete with vivid characters, gorgeous prose, and shocking scenes," and calls attention to
Slavoj ?i?ek
's use of the book to illustrate the nonlinear nature of experience.
Legacy and influence
[
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]
In 1998, the
Modern Library
included the novel at #28 on its list of the
100 best English-language novels of the 20th century
.
Radcliffe
later included it at #62 in its rival list.
NPR
included it at #69 on its 2009 list titled
100 Years, 100 Novels
.
In 2012 it was listed as one of the
1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die
.
Adaptations
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]
In 1955, an hour long adaptation was broadcast live by
CBS
on the
General Electric
sponsored show "
Front Row Center
", with
Mercedes McCambridge
as Nicole Diver.
[67]
Dick Diver was played by
James Daly
.
[
citation needed
]
The telefilm was written by
Whitfield Cook
and directed and produced by McCambridge’s then-husband,
Fletcher Markle
. It featured original music by eminent composer
David Raksin
.
New York Times
reviewer
John P. Shanley
panned it as “an inept conception” and “an unforgivable treatment of a gifted author’s work.”
[68]
In 1962, a
film adaptation
was released with
Jason Robards
as Dick Diver and
Jennifer Jones
as Nicole Diver.
The song "Tender Is the Night" from the movie soundtrack was nominated for the 1962 Academy Awards for
Best Song
.
Two decades later, in 1985, a television mini-series of the book was co-produced by the
BBC
,
20th Century Fox Television
, and
Showtime Entertainment
.
The mini-series featured
Peter Strauss
as Dick Diver,
Mary Steenburgen
as Nicole Diver, and
Sean Young
as Rosemary Hoyt.
In 1995, a stage adaptation by
Simon Levy
, with permission of the Fitzgerald Estate, was produced at
The Fountain Theatre
, Los Angeles.
It won the PEN Literary Award in Drama and several other awards.
Boris Eifman
's 2015 ballet
Up and Down
is based loosely on the novel.
References
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]
Notes
[
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]
- ^
Artist
Edward Shenton
illustrated the serialization, but he did not design the book's dust jacket.
- ^
Bruccoli & Baughman 1996
, p. 197: The dust jacket was "unsigned and the artist has not been identified."
- ^
a
b
There is a scholarly debate regarding whether Nicole Driver's incestuous rape is based on Zelda's troubled relationship with her father,
Anthony D. Sayre
.
Mary Jo Tate states there is no confirming evidence that Zelda was the victim of incest.
- ^
a
b
c
The relationship between Nicole Diver and Tommy Barban parallels the actual relationship between Zelda and Edouard Jozan.
Citations
[
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]
- ^
Fitzgerald 1963
, p. 570: "Oddly enough, the character of Tommy, or rather some of the mannerisms of Tommy, were taken from Mario Braggiotti, the brother of Stiano."
- ^
Buller 2005
, pp. 6?8: "My worship for him", Moran later recalled, "was based on admiration of his talent".
- ^
Donaldson 1983
, p. 1: "My father is a moron and my mother is a neurotic, half insane with pathological nervous worry," Fitzgerald wrote to
Max Perkins
. "Between them they haven't and never have had the brains of
Calvin Coolidge
."
- ^
Rascoe, Burton (September 7, 1955).
"TV First Nighter"
.
Buffalo Evening News
. p. 48.
- ^
Shanley, J.P. (September 7, 1955).
"TV: 'Tender Is the Night'
"
.
The New York Tomes
. p. 63.
Works cited
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]
- "100 Best Novels"
.
Modern Library
. New York City. 2010
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- "100 Best Novels"
.
Radcliffe Publishing
. New York City. 2010. Archived from
the original
on October 15, 2010
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Adams, J. Donald (April 15, 1934).
"Scott Fitzgerald's Return to the Novel"
.
The New York Times
(Sunday ed.). New York City. p. B7 (46)
. Retrieved
April 30,
2022
.
- Archer, Eugene (June 8, 1961).
"
'Tender Is The Night' On The Cote D'azur"
.
The New York Times
. New York City
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Bate, Jonathan (September 2021).
Bright Star, Green Light: The Beautiful Works and Damned Lives of John Keats and F. Scott Fitzgerald
. New Haven, Connecticut:
Yale University Press
.
ISBN
978-0-300-25657-4
– via Google Books.
- Benn, Melissa
(March 7, 2008).
"Book of a Lifetime: Tender Is the Night, by F. Scott Fitzgerald"
.
The Independent
. London, United Kingdom
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Bleiberg, Laura (June 6, 2015).
"With Fitzgerald adaptation 'Up & Down,' Eifman succeeds on his own, melodramatic terms"
.
The Los Angeles Times
. El Segundo, California
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Bloom, Harold
(1999). James, Pearl (ed.).
F. Scott Fitzgerald
. Broomall, Pennsylvania:
Chelsea House Publishers
.
ISBN
978-1-4381-3993-7
– via Google Books.
- Bruccoli, Matthew J.
; Baughman, Judith S. (1996).
Reader's Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tender Is the Night
. Columbia, South Carolina:
University of South Carolina Press
.
ISBN
978-1-57003-223-3
.
LCCN
62-14379
– via Internet Archive.
- Bruccoli, Matthew J.
(2002) [1981].
Some Sort of Epic Grandeur: The Life of F. Scott Fitzgerald
(2nd rev. ed.). Columbia, South Carolina:
University of South Carolina Press
.
ISBN
978-1-57003-455-8
– via Internet Archive.
- Bruccoli, Matthew J.
(1963).
The Composition of Tender Is the Night: A Study of the Manuscripts
. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania:
University of Pittsburgh Press
.
ISBN
978-0-8229-7554-0
– via Google Books.
- Buller, Richard (2005).
"F. Scott Fitzgerald, Lois Moran, and the Mystery of Mariposa Street"
.
The F. Scott Fitzgerald Review
.
4
. University Park, Pennsylvania:
Penn State University Press
: 3?19.
doi
:
10.1111/j.1755-6333.2005.tb00013.x
.
JSTOR
41583088
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Cowley, Malcolm
(August 20, 1951).
"F. Scott Fitzgerald Thought This Book Would Be the Best American Novel Of His Time"
.
The New Republic
. New York City.
ISSN
0028-6583
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Daniel, Anne Margaret (August 25, 2021).
"The Odd Couple: John Keats and F. Scott Fitzgerald"
.
The Spectator
. London, United Kingdom
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Donaldson, Scott (1983).
Fool for Love: F. Scott Fitzgerald
. New York:
Congdon & Weed
.
ISBN
0-312-92209-4
– via Internet Archive.
- Fitzgerald, F. Scott
(1963).
Turnbull, Andrew
(ed.).
The Letters of F. Scott Fitzgerald
. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons
.
LCCN
63-16755
– via Internet Archive.
- Kennedy, Gerald (1993).
Imagining Paris: Exile, Writing, and American Identity
. New Haven, Connecticut:
Yale University Press
.
ISBN
978-0-300-06102-4
– via Internet Archive.
- Luong, Merry B. (April 23, 2010).
A Woman's Touch in F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tender Is the Night
.
Georgia State University
(Thesis). Atlanta, Georgia
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
- Mencken, H. L.
(1989). Fecher, Charles A. (ed.).
The Diary of H. L. Mencken
. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf
.
ISBN
0-394-56877-X
– via Internet Archive.
- Messenger, Christian (2015).
Tender Is the Night and F. Scott Fitzgerald's Sentimental Identities
. Tuscaloosa, Alabama:
University of Alabama Press
.
ISBN
978-0-8173-1853-6
– via Google Books.
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(May 7, 2009).
"100 Years, 100 Novels, One List"
.
National Public Radio
. Washington, D.C
. Retrieved
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.
- Milford, Nancy
(1970).
Zelda: A Biography
. New York:
Harper & Row
.
LCCN
66-20742
– via Internet Archive.
- Mizener, Arthur
(1951) [1949].
The Far Side of Paradise: A Biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald
. Boston, Massachusetts:
Riverside Press
– via Internet Archive.
- O'Connor, John J. (October 29, 1985).
"
'Tender Is the Night' On Showtime"
.
The New York Times
. New York City
. Retrieved
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2021
.
- Prigozy, Ruth, ed. (2002).
The Cambridge Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald
. Cambridge, England:
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.
ISBN
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– via Google Books.
- Schorer, Mark
(1967).
Fitzgerald's Tragic Sense
. New York:
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.
- Stern, Milton
(1970).
The Golden Moment: The Novels of F. Scott Fitzgerald
. Champaign, Illinois:
University of Illinois Press
.
ISBN
0-252-00107-9
.
LCCN
70-110422
– via Internet Archive.
- Tate, Mary Jo (1998) [1997].
F. Scott Fitzgerald A to Z: The Essential Reference to His Life and Work
. New York:
Facts On File
.
ISBN
0-8160-3150-9
– via Internet Archive.
- Turnbull, Andrew
(1962) [1954].
Scott Fitzgerald
. New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons
.
LCCN
62-9315
– via Internet Archive.
- Van Allen, Burke (April 22, 1934).
"Almost a Masterpiece: Scott Fitzgerald Produces a Brilliant Successor to 'The Great Gatsby'
"
.
The Brooklyn Daily Eagle
(Sunday ed.). Brooklyn, New York. p. 83
. Retrieved
May 16,
2022
– via Newspapers.com.
- Zinoman, Jason (July 16, 2006).
"
'Gatz' and 'The Great Gatsby' Vie for Broadway Stages"
.
The New York Times
. New York City
. Retrieved
December 27,
2021
.
External links
[
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]