Tamils who practice Jainism
Ethnic group
Tamil Jains
(
Tamil
Sama?ar
, from
Prakrit
sama?a
"wandering renunciate") are ethnic-
Tamils
from the
Indian state
of
Tamil Nadu
, who practice
Jainism
, chiefly the
Digambara
school (Tamil
Sama?am
). The Tamil Jain is a microcommunity of around 85,000 (around 0.13% of the population of Tamil Nadu), including both Tamil Jains and north Indian Jains settled in Tamil Nadu. They are predominantly scattered in northern Tamil Nadu, largely in the districts of
Tiruvannamalai
,
Kanchipuram
,
Vellore
,
Villupuram
,
Ranipet
and
Kallakurichi
.
Early
Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions in Tamil Nadu date to the third century BCE and describe the livelihoods of Tamil Jains.
Sama?ar
wrote much
Tamil literature
, including the important
Sangam literature
, such as the
N?la?iy?r
, the
Cilappatikaram
, the
Valayapathi
and the
Civaka Cintamani
. Three of the five great epics of Tamil literature are attributed to Jains.
[2]
History
[
edit
]
Origins
[
edit
]
Some scholars believe that Jain philosophy must have entered
South India
some time in the sixth century BCE. Literary sources and inscription state that
Bhadrabahu
came over to
Shravanabelagola
with a 12,000-strong retinue of Jain sages when north India found it hard to negotiate with the 12-year long famine in the reign of
Chandragupta Maurya
. Even Chandragupta accompanied this constellation of sages. On reaching Shravanabelagola, Bhadrabahu felt his end approaching and decided to stay back along with Chandragupta and he instructed the Jain saints to tour over the
Chola-
and
Pandyan
-ruled domains.
[
citation needed
]
According to other scholars, Jainism must have existed in
South India
well before the visit of Bhadrabhu and Chandragupta. There are plenty of caves as old as fourth century with Jain inscriptions and Jain deities found around
Madurai
,
Tiruchir?ppa??i
,
Kanyakumari
and
Thanjavur
.
[
citation needed
]
A number of
Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions have been found in
Tamil Nadu
that date from the second century BCE. They are regarded as associated with Jain monks and lay devotees.
[3]
[4]
The exact origins of Jainism in Tamil Nadu is unclear. However, Jains flourished in Tamil Nadu at least as early as the
Sangam period
. Tamil Jain tradition places their origins are much earlier. The
Ramayana
mentions that
Rama
paid homage to
Jain monks
living in
South India
on his way to
Sri Lanka
. Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil (3rd century BCE),
Tolk?ppiyam
, was a Jain.
[5]
Tirukkural
by
Thiruvalluvar
is considered by many to be the work of a Jain by scholars like V. Kalyanasundarnar, Vaiyapuri Pillai,
[6]
Swaminatha Iyer,
[7]
and P. S. Sundaram.
[8]
It emphatically supports strict
vegetarianism
(or
veganism
) (Chapter 26) and states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than thousand burnt offerings (verse 259).
Silappatikaram
, the earliest surviving epic in Tamil literature, was written by a Sama?a,
Ilango Adigal
. This epic is a major work in
Tamil literature
, describing the historical events of its time and also of then-prevailing religions, Jainism, Buddhism and
Shaivism
. The main characters of this work,
Kannagi
and
Kovalan
, who have a divine status among
Tamils
,
Malayalees
and
Sinhalese
were Jains.
[
citation needed
]
According to
George L. Hart
, who holds the endowed chair in Tamil Studies by
University of California
,
Berkeley
, has written that the legend of the
Tamil Sangams
or "literary assemblies", was based on the Jain
sangham
at
Madurai
:
There was a permanent Jain assembly called a Sangha established about 604 CE in Madurai. It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition fabricated the Sangam legend.
[9]
Jainism became dominant in Tamil Nadu in the fifth and sixth century CE, during a period known as the
Kalabhra interregnum
.
Decline and survival
[
edit
]
Jainism began to decline around the eighth century CE, with many Tamil kings embracing
Hindu religions
, especially
Shaivism
. Still, the
Chalukya
,
Pallava
and
Pandya
dynasties embraced Jainism. The Shaivite legend about the
impalement of the Jains in Madurai
claims that 8000 Jains were impaled after they lost a contest against the Saivites, Thirugnana Sambandhar was invited by the queen of Madurai to check the atrocities against Jains and their influence on the King; however, this legend is not mentioned in any Jain text
[11]
According to
Paul Dundas
, the story represents the abandonment of Madurai by Jains for various reasons or the gradual loss of their political influence.
[12]
Jainism survived in the region during the period of decline.
[13]
The Melsithamur matha was established by a monk Shantisager who arrived from Shravanabelgola sometime during the 9-12th century period as attested by the 12th century inscriptions. A Jain center associated by Acharya
Akalanka
in the eighth century survives at
Thiruparuttikundram
near
Kanchi
. The Tamil Jain texts of this period include 13th-century (orlater) Aru?kalacceppu, 14th cent. M?rumantarap?r??am and the 15th-century ?r?pur??am.
[
citation needed
]
Revival
[
edit
]
When India became independent in 1947, Madras Presidency became
Madras State
, comprising present day Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra Pradesh, South Canara district Karnataka, and parts of Kerala. The state was subsequently split up along linguistic lines. In 1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu, meaning
Tamil country
.
[14]
[15]
Acharya Nirmal Sagar was the first Digambar Jain monk to reenter Tamilnadu in 1975 after a gap of several centuries.
[16]
After him some of the Jain nuns have visited Tamilnadu resulting in a renaissance of Jainism among the Tamil Jains. Many abandoned and crumbling temples have been renovated as a result of renewed interaction between Tamil Jains and the Jains from the rest of India. Financial grants have been provided by
Bharatiya Digambar Jain Tirth Samrakshini Mahasabha
and the Dharmasthala institutions.
[17]
[18]
Local Jain scholars and activists have started "Ahimsa walks" to bring attention to the Tamil Jain heritage.
[19]
[20]
Archaeological evidences
[
edit
]
Archaeological remains in Tamilnadu are discovered time to time that attest to popularity of Jainism in Tamilnadu. Most of the rock inscriptions are related to the Jain ascetics who used to commonly reside in hill caves.
[21]
The ruins of Anandamangalam vestiges were discovered in
Anandamangalam
, a small hamlet near
Orathi
village in
Kancheepuram district
of
Tamil Nadu
. The ruins had the rock-cut sculptures of
yakshini
(tutelary deity)
Ambika
and
tirthankara
Neminatha
and
Parshvanatha
.
[22]
Population
[
edit
]
The total number of Jains in Tamil Nadu as per 2011 Indian census is 83,359,
[1]
which forms 0.12% of the total population of Tamil Nadu (72,138,958). This include the Jains who have migrated from North India (mainly Rajasthan and Gujarat).
[23]
The population of Tamil Jains is estimated to be 25,000-35,000.
[24]
Jains in Tamil Nadu
[1]
Parameter
|
Population
|
Male
|
Female
|
Total Population
|
83,359
|
43,114
|
40,245
|
Literates Population
|
68,587
|
36,752
|
31,835
|
Workers Population
|
26,943
|
23,839
|
3,104
|
Cultivators Population
|
2,216
|
1,675
|
541
|
Agricultural Workers Population
|
768
|
325
|
443
|
HH Industry Workers Population
|
574
|
441
|
133
|
Other Workers Population
|
23,385
|
21,398
|
1,987
|
Non-Workers Population
|
56,416
|
19,275
|
37,141
|
The Tamil Jains are ancient natives of Tamil Nadu
[25]
and belong to the Digambara sect.
[26]
They generally use the title Nainar. A few in Thanjavur District, use Mudaliar and Chettiar as titles.
[27]
The former
North Arcot
and
South Arcot
(now Tiruvannamalai, Vellore, Cuddalore and Villupuram Districts) districts have a large number of Jain temples, as well as a significant population of Tamil Jains.
[28]
At present, most of the Tamil Jains are from the
Vellalar
social group.
[29]
The present Hindu members of this sect are originally believed to have been Jain before they embraced
Hinduism
.
[30]
The Tamil Jains refer to the Shaiva Vellalar as
n?r-p?ci-nayin?rs
or
n?r-p?ci-vellalars
meaning the Vellalars who left Jainism by smearing the sacred ash or
(tiru)-n?ru
.
[31]
While some of the Jains assign this conversion to the period of the Bhakti movement in
Tamil nadu
others link it to a conflict with a ruler of the
Vijayanagara empire
in the 15th century. The villages and areas settled by the Shaiva Vellalar even now have a small number of Jain families and inscriptional evidence indicate that these were earlier Jain settlements as is evident by the existence of old Jain temples.
[32]
The title Nainar has been used since antiquity for Jain monks. In Cilappatikaram a Jain temple is mentioned as Nayinar Koil and the Kalugumalai inscription refers to Jain munis as Nayinar.
[33]
It is akin to the term
Sahu
or Sadhu in North Indian Jain inscriptions.
Religious head
[
edit
]
Laxmisena
[
edit
]
Laxmisena
of the
Jina Kanchi Jain Mutt
or madam at Mel-Sithamoor (near
Tindivanam
,
Villupuram
District) is one of the religious heads of the community. He performs the
upadesha
ceremony for Jain children. In the past, this mutt had been the centre for religious study, guiding and helping the economic activities of its members, organising religious discourses, maintenance of temples and such activities. The mutt was able to achieve such multifarious operations with the help and contributions of its members. At present the mutt is also maintaining a gousala (for cows and others).
The present finance position of the mutt is inadequate for even day-to-day maintenance. Planting of coconut and mango trees has been started to increase the revenue of the fund for the purpose of day-to-day maintenance of the mutt. The car ('
ther
') in the mutt requires replacement of wooden wheels.
Dhavalakeerthi
[
edit
]
In addition to the above, a new mutt named
Arahanthgiri Jain Math
located at Thirumalai near Polur,
Tiruvannamalai
district, has been functioning from 8 February 1998 with the name
Dhavalakeerthi
. Now in the mutt around 2300 students are studying from primary to higher secondary school including Jain philosophy with free boarding and lodging. Maintenance of the above is done through contributions from donors.
[34]
Lifestyle
[
edit
]
The traditional occupation of the majority of the Tamil Jain families has been landowners of agricultural land. Now many are teachers. A considerable number of them are settled in urban areas, they are employed in public and private sectors. A small population has settled overseas (US, Canada, UK, Australia and other places).
Cuisine
[
edit
]
Tamil Jains are ardent vegetarians. With the turn of the 20th century, they were a self-sustained rural-based farming community. They were landowners and used contract labourers for their agricultural activities. Their household included large tracts of land, cattle, and milch cows. They had kitchen gardens growing vegetables for their daily need. Dairy food such as milk, curd, butter and ghee were cooked in house. Daily food was very simple consisting of a brunch with rice, cooked lentils (paruppu), ghee, vegetable sambar, curd, sun-dried pickles of mango, lemon or citron, and deep-fried sun-dried 'crispies' (vadavam) made from rice pie. Evening snacks of deep-fried lentil preparations and before sunset dinner consisting either idli, dosa or rice with buttermilk and lentil chutney (thogaiyal). While seniors, people undergoing religious fast and ardent followers of religious principles avoided garlic, onions and tubers in their daily food, these were occasionally used by others in the household.
Identity
[
edit
]
Tamil Jains are well assimilated in Tamil society, without any outward differentiation. Their physical features are similar to Tamils. Apart from certain religious adherences, practices and
vegetarianism
, their culture is similar to the rest of Tamil Nadu. However, they name their children by the names of Tirthankaras and characters from Jain literature. It is also notable that the men of the Tamil Jain community also wear the sacred thread.
Lifetime ceremony
[
edit
]
Ezhankaapu - on the seventh day of its birth, a new born baby is adorned with bracelets.
Kaathu Kutthal - ear piercing and adorning child with earrings. This ceremony is mostly performed in either Aarpakkam temple or Thirunarangkondai i.e.Thirunarungkundram. (Appandai Nathar is the deity).
Other Ceremonies
[
edit
]
Upadesam
- the formal induction into religious practices and adherences is called Upadesam. This is done to both boys and girls, at around the age of 15. After Upadesam, one is supposed to follow religious practices with vigor and seriousness.
Marriage
- outwardly, Jain marriages resemble Hindu marriages. However, the
mantras
chanted are Jain. There is no Brahmin priest; instead there is a Sama?ar called a
Koyil Vaadhiyar
or temple priest, who conducts the ceremonies.
Pilgrimage
- most Jains go on pilgrimage to
tirthas
and major
Jain temples
in
North India
- Sammed
Shikharji
,
Pavapuri
,
Champapuri
and
Urjayanta Giri
- as well as places in
South India
such as
Shravanabelagola
, Humcha or Hombuja
Humbaj
, Simmanagadde in
Karnataka
and
Ponnur Malai
in
Tamil Nadu
.
There are private amateur tour operators as well who take pilgrims to newly identified ancient Tamil Jain sites in western Tamil Nadu (kongunadu) and northern Kerala (vayanadu).
Funeral rites - the dead are placed on a pyre and incinerated. Ashes are then disbursed in water courses and ceremonies are performed on 10th or 16th day. Annual remembrance ceremonies similar to Hindu practice are not performed. But no festivities or functions are followed that year on the paternal side.
Festivals
[
edit
]
Religious practices
[
edit
]
Full moon days
,
Chaturdasi
(14th day of the fortnight),
Ashtami
(8th day of the fortnight) are days chosen for
fasting
and religious observations. Women take food only after reciting the name of a
tirthankara
five times. People undertake such practices as a vow for certain period of time - sometimes even for years. On completion, Udhyapana festivals (special prayer services) are performed, religious books and memorabilia are distributed. People who take certain vows eat only after sunrise and before sunset.
List of Tamil Jains
[
edit
]
- Prof. A. Cakravarti Nayanar, scholar and author, including "Jain Literature in Tamil", 1941,
[35]
- Jeevabandhu T.S Sripal
[36]
- S. Sripal
, Director General of Police in
Tamil Nadu
.
- Prof. J. Srichandran, Founder, Varthamanan Padippagam
- Air Marshal Simhakutty Varthaman.
[37]
- Wing Commander
Abhinandan Varthaman
.
[37]
Temple locations
[
edit
]
Cave temples
[
edit
]
Puja temples
[
edit
]
- is done in the following old (built several centuries ago) and new (built in the last 100 years) Tamil Digambara Jain temples
(in alphabetical order):
- Aadhinath Jain Temple,
Cuddalore
(old)
- Anumanthakudi,
Sivagangai
dt.(new)
- Adambakkam, Adi Nath Digambar Jain Temple
Chennai
(New)
- Agalur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Agarakorakottai,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Alagramam Jain Temple
,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Arahanthgiri Jain Math
,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Arani (S.V.Nagaram),
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Arani (Pudukamur),
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Arani (Saidapet),
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Arani (Palayam),
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Arani (Kosapalayam)
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Arani (sevoor)
Thiruvannamalai
- Arungulam
Kanchipuram
Dt. (Old)
- Arpaakkam,
Kanchipuram
Dt. (Old)
- Arugavur, Solai,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Avadi
,
Chennai
Dt.(New)
- Ayalavadi,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Chitharal Jain Temple
,(Old) : ninth century temple
- Chitharal malaikovil
,(Old) : before 425 CE
- Cheyyar,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Deepangudi,
Nagapattinam
Dt. (Old)
- Easaakolathur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Elangadu,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Eyyil,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Erumbur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt.(Old)
- George Town, Chennai
Dt. (New)
- Gingee,
Viluppuram
Dt. (Old)
- Ilayangudi,
Sivagangai
Dt. (New)
- Kannalam,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Kallapuliyur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Kallakullathur,
Villupuram
Dt. {old}
- Karanthai
,
Kanchipuram
Dt. (Old)
- Karanthai Jain Temple
,
Thanjavur
Dt. (Old)
- Kalugumalai Jain Beds
Dt. (Old)
- Kanchiyur Jain cave and stone beds
Dt. (Old)
- Kattumalaiyanur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Keezh Villivanam,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Keezh Edayalam,
Villupuram
Dt.
- Kilsathamangalam,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Koliyanur, Villupuram Dt.(Old)
- Kolathur,
Chennai
Dt. (New)
- Kovilampoondi,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt (Old)
- Kumbakonam
,
Thanjavur
Dt. (Old)
- Mannargudi Mallinatha Swamy Jain Temple
,
Nagapattinam
Dt. (Old)
- Melapandal,
Vellore
Dt. (New)
- Melmalaiyanur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Mel Sithamur Jain Math
,
Villupuram
Dt.
- Mettu Street,
Kanchipuram
(New)
- Mudalur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Nallavanpalayam
,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt.(New)
- Nallur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Nanganallur
,
Chennai
Dt. (New)
- Naval,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Nedimolliyanur
Villupuram
Dt. {old}
- Nelliyankulam,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Othalavaadi,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Parshwa Padmavathi Jain Temple, Sundampatti, Orappam
Krishnagiri Dt.
(Old)
- Pammal
,
Chennai
(New)
- Peranamallur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt (Old)
- Perani,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Peravoor,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Periyakozhappalur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Perumandur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Perumbogai,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Poondi Arugar Temple
, Arani,
Tiruvannamalai
Dt(Old)
- Ponnur Malai,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Puzhal
,
Chennai
Dt. (New)
- Renderipet,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- R.Kunnathur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Shri Vasupujya Temple
, Sathuvachari,
Vellore
Dt. (old)
- Sathuvachari,
Vellore
Dt. (New)
- Sevur,
Vellore
Dt. (Old)
- Sitharaal,
Nagercoil
Dt. (Old)
- Sittanavasal
,
Pudukottai
Dt. (Old)
- Sitthamur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Oldest Jain temple and Jain math)
- Somaasipadi,
Thiruvannamalai
(New)
- Thellar,
thiruvannamalai
Dt.
- Thirunarunkundram,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Thiruparuthikundram temple
,
Kanchipuram
Dt. (Old)
- Thirupanamoor
,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. near
Kanchipuram
- Thachambadi,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Thatchur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Thayanur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Thennathur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt.(old)
- Thirakoil
, Thiruvannamalai Dt. (Old)
- Thirupparankunram
,
Madurai
Dt.(Sangam literature Paripadal 19 step 51)
- Thiruvannamalai
,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (New)
- Thondur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Tindivanam,
Villupuram
Dt (New)
- Tirumalai
,Polur Dt.(Old)
- Trilokyanatha Temple
,
Kanchipuram
Dt (Old)
- Valathi
/ Valathy,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Vandavasi
,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Valapandal
Vellore
Dt. (Old)
- Veedur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Veeranamur,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Vellimedupettai,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Vempoondi,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Venbakkam,
Kanchipuram
Dt. (Old)
- Vilangadupakkam,
Chennai
Dt. (Old)
- Vizhukkam,
Villupuram
Dt. (Old)
- Vijayamangalam,
Erode
Dt. (Old)
- Virudur,
Thiruvannamalai
Dt. (Old)
- Nasiyan Jain Temple,Prithvi Raj Road,ooty,dedicated to Rishabhdevji.
[38]
- Sri 1008 Vaupujya Swamy Swethambar Jain Temple, Ooty
[39]
Photo gallery
[
edit
]
Tamil Jain Books
[
edit
]
"Jeevaka Chinthamani", "Sripurana" by
J Srichandran
.
[40]
See also
[
edit
]
Notes
[
edit
]
Citations
[
edit
]
- ^
a
b
c
"Directorate of Census Operations ? Tamil Nadu"
.
census2001.tn.nic.in
. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012
. Retrieved
17 April
2023
.
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
link
)
- ^
Jaina Literature in Tamil, Prof. A. Chakravarti
- ^
Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the sixth Century A.D.
, Iravatham Mahadeva, Harvard University Press, 2003
- ^
http://jainsamaj.org/rpg_site/literature2.php?id=595&cat=42
RECENT DISCOVERIES OF JAINA CAVE INSCRIPTIONS IN TAMILNADU, by Iravatham Mahadevan
- ^
Singh, Narendra (2001).
Encyclopaedia of Jainism
. Anmol Publications. p. 3144.
ISBN
978-81-261-0691-2
.
- ^
Tirukkural, Vol. 1, S.M. Diaz, Ramanatha Adigalar Foundation, 2000,
- ^
Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural, Bharatiya Jnanapith, 1987
- ^
The Kural, P. S. Sundaram, Penguin Classics, 1987
- ^
"The Milieu of the Ancient Tamil Poems, Prof. George Hart"
. 9 July 1997. Archived from
the original
on 9 July 1997
. Retrieved
21 April
2012
.
- ^
Ashim Kumar Roy (1984). "9. History of the Digambaras".
A history of the Jainas
. Gitanjali. Archived from
the original
on 23 February 2018
. Retrieved
22 May
2013
.
- ^
Paul Dundas (2002).
Jains
. Routledge. p. 127.
ISBN
978-0-415-26606-2
. Retrieved
23 May
2013
.
- ^
Jainism in the Tamil-Speaking Region, Christoph Emmrich, Brill Encyclopedia of Jainism, 2019
- ^
"Jainism in Tamilnadu"
.
- ^
Tamil Jain?
by Mahima Jain, The Hindu, 28 December 2013.
- ^
Acharya Nirmal Sagarji Maharaj, 1975, 03.08.2015
- ^
Taminadu Digambar Jain Tirtha Kshetra Sandarshana, 2001
- ^
Anointment rituals of Lord Bahubali performed by Jains from Tamil Nadu, Times of India, 12 Mar 2019
- ^
This Chennai group explores the hidden, not-so-famous Jain temples of Tamil Nadu, Anjana Shekar, 30 August 2018
- ^
The Jain connection in Tamil Nadu, Tamanna Shah, Express News Service, 22 May 2018
- ^
Deciphering Tamil-Brahmi and Vattezhuthu scripts, Nahla Nainar, Hindu, FEBRUARY 3, 2017
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Bhaskaran, S. Theodore
(27 November 2015),
The Jain ruins of Anandamangalam in Tamil Nadu, though small in size, have sufficient details to merit close attention
,
Frontline
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Tamil Jain?, Mahima Jain, The Hindu, DECEMBER 28, 2013
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The Tamil Jains: A minority within a minority, Mahima A. Jain, South Asia @ London School of Economics, 11 December 2015
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Genetic admixture studies on four in situ evolved, two migrant and twenty-one ethnic populations of Tamil Nadu, south India, G. SUHASINI et al, Journal of Genetics, Vol. 90, No. 2, August 2011., p. 191-202
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[Volume 40 of People of India, Kumar Suresh Singh,
Volume 3 of People of India: Tamil Nadu, Anthropological Survey of India, Affiliated East-West Press for Anthropological Survey of India, 1997, p. 1437]
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Reading History with the Tamil Jainas, A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation, R. Umamaheshwari, Springer, Indian Institute of Advanced Study, p.4, 111
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Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Volume II of VII By Edgar Thurston, Library of Alexandria
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R. Umamaheshwari (2018).
Reading History with the Tamil Jainas. A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Volume 22 of Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures
. Springer. p. 250.
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Andhra University (1972).
Religion and Politics in Medieval South India. Papers of a Seminar Held by the Institute of Asian Studies and Andhra University
. Institute of Asian Studies. p. 15.
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R. Umamaheshwari (2018).
Reading History with the Tamil Jainas. A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Volume 22 of Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures
. Springer. p. 222.
All of those who feared for their lives converted to Saivism (and not any other religious sect) adorning the sacred ash, 'throwing away their sacred threads', they assumed the identity of Saiva (nir-puci) vellalars or
nir-puci-nayinars
(the Jainas who smeared sacred ash).
- ^
R. Umamaheshwari (2018).
Reading History with the Tamil Jainas. A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. Volume 22 of Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures
. Springer. p. 223.
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Identities in conflict: Jainism in early tamilakam, Maheshwari, R. Uma, Jawaharlal Nehru University PhD Dissertation, 2007, Chapter II
The Tamil Jaina Community: Questions of Identity, p. 85
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"Swasthy Shree Dhavalakeerthi Swamiji"
. Akalanka-educational-trust.com. Archived from
the original
on 4 January 2012
. Retrieved
2012-05-26
.
- ^
The Ins and Outs of the Jains in Tamil Literary Histories, Christoph Emmrich, J Indian Philos (2011) 39:599?646
- ^
R. Umamaheshwari, ‘Retrieving’, Seeking, the Tamil Jaina Self: the Politics of Memory, Identity and Tamil Language, Reading History with the Tamil Jainas, 26 January 2018, pp 205-298
- ^
a
b
Tamil Nadu village prays for safe return of pilot Abhinandan
- ^
"Ooty: Jain Temple, Ooty"
. Archived from
the original
on 21 August 2013
. Retrieved
22 August
2013
.
- ^
"Gallery - Category: Ooty - Image: Sri 1008 Vaupujya Swamy Swethambar Jain Temple, Ooty"
. Archived from
the original
on 26 August 2013
. Retrieved
22 August
2013
.
- ^
For this 87-year-old, bringing epics to lay readers is a passion
by MT Saju. The Times of India, 8 January 2015.
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